Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) was a physician in Classical Greece, born on the island of Kos. For his foundational contributions to the nascent field of medical science he has been dubbed “the Father of Medicine”.

Life and work

Not much biographical information is known about Hippocrates, as the main sources are not entirely reliable and some contain different accounts on his life. It is however generally accepted that he was born in 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos (now part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea).

Hippocrates is mentioned in famous works of his contemporaries, namely in Plato's dialogues Protagoras and Phaedrus, and in Aristotle’s works Parts of Animals and Rhetoric; the latter refers to him as "the Great Hippocrates", showing great respect and highlighting his value as an early systematic thinker in the study of nature and medicine, even though he disagreed with some of his theories.

According to his first and most comprehensive biography (written by the Greek physician Soranus of Ephesus, who lived at least 3 centuries later) he came from a line of physicians, who taught him medicine, while he may also have been a student of Democritus, and was probably trained at the asklepieion (healing temple) of Kos.  He practiced medicine throughout his life and travelled to various parts of the Greek world. He is also said to have died at an advanced age.

Medicine as a rational science

Hippocrates’ most influential contribution to the field of medicine and science in general was that he proposed that diseases had natural causes, rooted in environmental factors, lifestyle, and diet—laying the groundwork for rational, scientific approaches to medicine.

He is believed to be the first person to attribute physical ailments to somatic rather than supernatural causes. Until that time, disease was widely regarded as a curse placed by gods; therefore, demonstrating the role that environmental factors and living habits had on health was revolutionary in and of itself, regardless of whether many of his specific theories would later be disproven.

One very telling example is the condition of epilepsy, which was regarded as either a malediction or even a sign of favor from the gods – hence it was characterized as “sacred”. In the treatise On the Sacred Disease, part of the Hippocratic Corpus, we find the first recorded observations of epilepsy, with the author attributing the phenomenon to an imbalance of bodily fluids, rejecting any metaphysical explanation.

Hippocrates also introduced the concept of prognosis and clinical observation, by emphasizing detailed, systematic observation of patients. He advocated for careful recording of symptoms, disease progression, and treatment outcomes – forming the basis of clinical case studies and patient history-taking in modern medicine. Additionally, he shifted some focus from just curing illness to predicting and managing it, helping physicians plan treatments and prepare for outcomes.

Hippocratic Corpus

The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of around 60 medical texts attributed to Hippocrates and his followers. These works cover a wide range of medical topics, including anatomy, surgery, and ethics, and they served as essential references for centuries. The majority of these texts date from the Classical period, while there are also some works from the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods. This collection of inestimable value represents the central nucleus of ancient Greek medical literature, containing textbooks, lectures, research, notes and even philosophical essays on medical issues.

The medical framework underlying the Hippocratic Corpus was the theory of the four humors, a physiological theory suggesting that health is maintained by a balance of four bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. This, now debunked, theory dominated Western medicine for over a millennium and influenced diagnosis and treatment practices.

Arguably the most famous text of the Corpus is the Hippocratic Oath, an oath of ethics historically taken by physicians. Although not written by Hippocrates himself in its final form, the oath is attributed to his school and forms the basis for modern medical ethics—emphasizing the principles of medical confidentiality, non-maleficence, and professionalism. The use of an oath to be sworn by medical professionals, a practice still prevalent today, has its roots in this original text.

Legacy

The deep influence of Hippocratic ideals on his contemporaries is undeniable. His methods and those of the school named after him were studied and applied by subsequent physicians, as they were revolutionary for their time. This influence transcended the field of medicine: Aristotle’s approach to biology and empirical observation was clearly influenced by the medical tradition Hippocrates helped shape.

The empirical, observational methods described in the texts of the Hippocratic Corpus continued to be adopted by physicians for many centuries after the Classical Period. Galen of Pergamon [129–c. 216 AD], the most important Greek physician after Hippocrates, revered Hippocrates and integrated much of the Corpus into his own vast medical system, preserving and popularizing Hippocratic texts.

The Corpus was translated into Latin, Syriac, and Arabic; in the Middle Ages, the Hippocratic texts, together with the works of the aforementioned Galen, formed the basis of the curriculum for medical training in both Europe and the Arab world (Islamic Golden Age). The influence of the Hippocratic Corpus continued well into the Renaissance, until it was eclipsed by the advances in anatomy, microbiology and pharmacology in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Last but not least: Hippocrates and the Hippocratic Corpus have also left behind a rich vocabulary that has formed part of the medical lexicon for thousands of years. A number of words still used to this day, such as urethra, pneumonia or arthritis, first appeared in the writings of Hippocrates (while several more can be found in the works of Galen).

These contributions are in fact not limited to the scope of medicine, and include some words used in everyday conversations. For example, paranoia is also a Hippocratic term. A few more words have their roots in the four temperament theory, part of the aforementioned humoral theory: "Melancholy”, which literally means "black bile"; "phlegm" in the sense of a calm and cool response to stress or danger; "choleric", meaning irritable; and "sanguine" (the only word with Latin roots) meaning optimistic. Other words deriving from humorism include, of course, "humor", as well as "idiosyncrasy"; the latter is a compound word coming from idios "one's own" + syn "with" + krasis, literally "mixture", here used with the sense of "blend of the four humors".

Finally, there are some clinical symptoms named after Hippocrates, due to having been first recorded in the Hippocratic Corpus, such as the Hippocratic facies (the change in one’s face interpreted as a sign of impending death), the Hippocratic fingers (nail clubbing) and the Hippocratic succession (gastric splash). "Hippocratic wreath" is also used to describe androgenetic alopecia.

N.M. (Intro image: Hippocrates refusing the gifts of Artaxerxes, 1792, Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson)

Read also via Greek News Agenda: Greek words about health and medicine in English; Medical advancements in Ancient Greece and the Byzantine Empire; The Plague of Athens as told by Thucydides: a timeless analysis of an epidemic

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The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA) has taken a bid leap ahead in global university rankings, landing at the 89th place globally and at the 16th place in Europe, as determined by the “Top Universities by Top Google Scholar Citations” table published by Webometrics for 2024. According to the current ranking announcement, as well as the results of recent years, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens not only consolidated but improved its position among the top 100 universities worldwide, while maintaining its top spot in the Southeastern Europe region. Among the rankings that stand out are:

Top Universities by Top Google Scholar Citations

NKUA ranked 89th worldwide and 16th in Europe at the "Top Universities by Top Google Scholar Citations," published on January 24 2004 by Webometrics. The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens has consolidated and improved its position in this ranking among the top 100 Universities in the world.

The specific ranking, published twice a year (January and July), is compiled based on the number of citations of the research work of the professors and researchers of the Institutions. Cross-references are located through the most popular academic literature search engine, Google Scholar.

Webometrics Ranking Web of Universities

The second important distinction for the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens came based on the results of the global ranking of Universities "Webometrics Ranking Web of Universities", which was published on 31/1/2024. According to the publication of the Ranking, the E.K.P.A. is in 247th place worldwide among 12,000 Universities, rising five places compared to last year's corresponding ranking. Based on the results of the said ranking, the E.K.P.A. is in 55th place among the 3483 Universities of the European Union and in 1st place in Greece among the Greek Universities included in the ranking.

NTU World University Rankings

The next ranking in which the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens achieved significant distinctions is the internationally recognized ranking "NTU World University Rankings - Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities".  This is one of the most important global rankings evaluating the quality, quantity and effectiveness of the research work of Institutions worldwide. NKUA occupies the 1st position among the eight Greek Universities and the 211th position globally.

In addition to the overall ranking, this system includes rankings by 6 broader scientific fields, as well as by 27 specific scientific subjects. Here too, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens has scored significantly high, as it is among  the top Universities in five of the six scientific fields;  in the scientific field of Medicine, NKUA is ranked 112th in the world.

In the category of individual scientific subjects, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens is ranked globally 89th in Immunology, 100^th in Pharmacy – Toxicology and 106th in Clinical Medicine. Furthermore, NKUA ranks in the top 250 in the scientific subjects of Civil Engineering, Molecular Biology and Genetics, and Space Sciences.

The "Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities" evaluation is based exclusively on the research work produced and published in each institution, on the impact achieved by the published works of its faculty members and researchers, as well as on the final special distinction and recognition they receive as high profile posts. In addition, this evaluation captures both the short-term and long-term performance and performance of the Universities in research, so that an Institution's position is not affected by a single year’s good performance.

Shanghai Ranking’s Global Ranking of Academic Subjects

Shanghai Ranking’s Academic Ranking of World Universities has been published annually since 2009 and is regarded as one of the three most influential and widely followed university classifications.  The rankings for 2023 were announced on October 27, 2023 by Shanghai Jiaotong University and includes include the Shanghai Ranking's Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, known as the “Shanghai list”.  The National and Kapodistrian University of Athens excelled on this list too, as it is included in the top Universities for 15 academic subjects. NKUA’s Medical School is ranked among the top 100 Medical Schools Worldwide; it has risen to positions 76-100, from positions 101-150 in 2022 at in the scientific field of Clinical Medicine. According to this ranking, the Medical School is also in the highest position among the Medical Schools of the four Greek Universities included in this ranking.

Other NKUA Departments that stand out are: the School of Dentistry which, for the fourth time since 2017, is in the top-100 Universities Worldwide, occupying positions 76-100 in the subject "Dentistry & Oral Sciences," the Department of Nursing, which climbed in this year's ranking to positions 101-150 - compared to positions 151-200 in 2022, the Departments of Informatics and Telecommunications and the of Digital Industry Technologies, which rose 350 places in the subject "Electric and Electronic Engineering" and now rank at 101-150, and finally the Department of Physics which ranked 151-200 in the subject "Physics.”

These achievements by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA) were further confirmed in the recent presentation of performance data of Greek universities in rankings by the President of the Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency (HQA) Periklis Mitkas. The analysis conducted calculated the average positions for each institution among the institutions in Greece, in the rankings where they appear, on an annual basis.

I.L.

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The Medical Degree English Program offered by the School of Medicine of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA), was founded in 2020 and began in September 2022. It is a 6-year undergraduate program addressed exclusively to foreign nationals of EU and non-EU countries. Admissions are now open for the academic year 2024-2025, which starts in September 2024 (applications deadline: March 15, 2024).

The program ’s primary goals is to attract the very best, whether they be prospective international students or internationally renowned professors. Courses are delivered in English by world-class tutors in Medical Departments and laboratories located in the University campus, and in 16 University Hospitals that provide daily, high quality health services in the Athens metropolitan area. For clinical training, students can practice in 16 hospitals of the Attica area. The possibility to learn the Greek language is also offered, at the University’s Modern Greek Language Teaching Center.

The University of Athens (named "Kapodistrian" to honor Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece’s first head of state) is the oldest University of modern Greece, founded in 1837. The School of Medicine was one of the four schools to operate in the university since its establishment. NKUA’s standing is reflected in various international University ranking classifications; for the 7th consecutive year, it is among the top 100 Universities of "Top Universities" by Top Google Scholar Citations.

It should be noted that the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (in collaboration with the International Hellenic University) was also the first public Greek University to offer an English-language undergraduate program (BA in the Archaeology, History and Literature of Ancient Greece), which welcomed its first international students in September of 2020.

Greek News Agenda spoke* about the Medical Degree English Program with the Director of the program and Dean of NKUA’s School of Medicine, Professor Nikolaos Arkadopoulos, while also taking some statements from the Administrative coordinator of the program, Dr Maria Vardaki.

Pr. Arkadopoulos, please tell us what led to the creation of an English-language undergraduate program by the School of Medicine of the University of Athens? To what extent is the content of the program identical to the corresponding program in Greek?

As soon as the legislative framework allowed it, the NKUA had the opportunity to proceed with the establishment of the "Medical Degree", with the high academic level of the School of Medicine being a guarantee for the success of the program. It is worth noting that our Greek graduates excel in any postgraduate program they choose, in the rest of Europe or in the USA, no matter how competitive. The high level of research work carried out at the School of Medicine is confirmed, among other things, by the many international research projects and the large number of publications in international scientific journals with a high impact index. The objectives of the program are to attract top students from foreign countries and to provide them with the seal of academic excellence of the first medical school in the Balkans. The history and legacy of 187 years, the international reputation of our School and its high position in the world rankings, along with the high academic level of our faculty and research staff (faculty members), led last year to more than 1400 students submitting expressions of interest.

The English-language program has been certified with honors by the National Higher Education Authority, it is a six-year long program and is essentially a mirror program of the 2017 reformed Greek-language program in Medicine at the University of Athens.

Which do you consider to be the comparative advantages offered to non-Greek students by this program, and by the city of Athens in general?

Let me begin by noting that, two months ago, the data for 2023 from the Open Doors Report on International Educational Exchange placed Greece in 8th place as the most popular destination for American students to study. This is no small achievement when you consider that it is preceded by countries with a strong tradition of higher education, but also with significant advancements in the field of innovation.

It should be pointed out that this program has essentially adopted student-centered learning in order to enable members of the academic and administrative staff to manage the diversity of the student population. In the day-to-day practice of the educational process as implemented in the program, this is achieved through a continuous exchange and collection of information on the progress of students and their performance and in an interactive, ongoing evaluation of the education provided.

An important advantage is that students are trained by the academic staff of the 90 University Clinics and laboratories of the School, which operate in 16 hospitals in Athens. These clinics receive 45% of the patients of the Attica area.

The tuition fees are set at the particularly competitive amount of 13,000 euros per year.

Foreign students have the opportunity to follow high-level courses in the country where most of the sciences originally evolved, along with democracy and culture. Another key advantage of Greece is that its universities have a stronger name in academia than other competitive European countries in central Europe. Our country also benefits from its Mediterranean climate and its reputation as one of the top tourist destinations in Europe.

Would you say that Greece as a country has become a brand name in the field of Medicine (in both the fields of research and medical practice) in SE Europe, but also more broadly?

The School of Medicine of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens plays a leading role in the continuous effort to advance medical science and health.

Greece, as a country, has emerged as a major player in the field of medicine, encouraging research and education at high levels. Scientists and health professionals in our country actively participate in European and global research programs, contributing to the shaping of the latest developments in medicine.

In the field of research, new scientific discoveries are constantly being made and innovative therapeutic approaches are emerging. Our laboratories are involved in projects that are defining the future of medicine, and our students have the opportunity to contribute directly to this scientific advancement.

NKUA’s School of Medicine continues to lead the way in healthcare with the establishment of 18 Centers of Expertise on Rare Diseases. These centers are sources of excellence, actively collaborating with other centers and networks on a national and European level. The continuous exchange of knowledge and collaboration between these centers enhances our ability to treat rare diseases with specialized and advanced therapeutic approaches.

As Dean of the School of Medicine, I am proud of the role we play in establishing medicine as a brand name for Greece. It is our priority to produce young, skilled scientists in the field of healthcare who will continue to contribute to the global medical community.

How would you describe the response from international students so far? Both in terms of the number of applications, but also in terms of the feedback received from the current students?

The program is in its second year of operation. Over the past two years, students from 64 countries have applied to the program. It is particularly significant that despite our strict admission criteria, over 1400 people submit expressions of interest each year and around 420 applicants submitted complete application files and excellent letters of recommendation.

Regarding the academic performance of our students, because we encourage their participation in research from the first year, it is worth noting, for example, that a sophomore student participated in a research paper published in the Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy journal, and three of our students participated with presentations at a conference.

In addition to the legal admission requirements, each program has set criteria that ensure a high level of admission. Criteria such as passing the BioMedical Admissions Test (BMAT), the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), a requirement for a high IB score and A*- levels in Chemistry, Physics, Biology courses, completion of a pre-med program or a BSc in related sciences, all of which are guarantees for the successful operation of the program.

My personal experience has been excellent. Everything has been smooth since I first arrived thanks to the faculty and staff. Our curriculum is very well organized and all of our classes are taught in English by dedicated professors always willing to support us. We have quality instruction with informative lectures and labs. I appreciate the University’s mission of internationalization. I have made friends from around the world and I am able to create new experiences while earning my medical degree in one of the best Universities of Greece.

Antonia Vasilopoulos, USA

What is the School of Medicine's vision for the future of this program? Can you tell us if there are any plans in the works for other international undergraduate programs from the University of Athens?

We will continue to emphasize the quality of educational work, the quality guarantee policies, the strengthening of research, the enhancement of synergies, the development of international cooperation. What we hope for with the Medical Degree English Program is the same that happens with the alumni of our Greek-speaking medical degree: to see that 100% of those who choose to work abroad find a job.

After all, the testimonies of our students make us look to the future with optimism, precisely because of the work that has been done and the recognition that exists, so that any competition acts as a challenge rather than a threat.

There are some programs that are in the process of being accredited, by the School of Dentistry, the Department of Nursing and the Department of Pharmacy.

In her statement to GNA, the Administrative coordinator of the program, Dr Maria Vardaki, pointed out that "Every semester students carry out an anonymous evaluation of both the program and the individual classes, but also of the program's administrative support." As she explained, the program’s team is particularly pleased that the "students in every evaluation so far have rated the program support with 5/5 and a response time of less than 3 hours to every request between 7:00-23:00 daily – a goal that the staff had also set to the Hellenic Authority for Higher Education."

As she added, the program's administrative support team is working with Study in Greece on housing services so that they can respond effectively to this need to cater to international students.

*Interview by Nefeli Mosaidi

Read also via Greek News Agenda: ; Interview with Prof. Karamalengou, academic director of the first English-language university programme on classical studies in Greece; Students from 27 countries at international program AUTh Medical School; Study in Greece | Bachelor’s Degree: Professor Christos Tsatsanis on the International Program in Medicine at the University of Crete

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By the end of 2024, a Center of Excellence for the Theragnosis of cancer will be in operation at the National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF), one of the largest research centers in Greece, with an estimated cost of more than €30 million.

According to the NHRF’s Director and Chairman of the Board, Professor Dimosthenis Sarigiannis, the Center of Excellence, which will be unique in its kind not only for Greece, but also for the whole of SE Europe, thanks to its state-of-the-art equipment, will be fully completed by 2025, but will be already in operation by the end of 2024.

Speaking to television host Christina Tsormpa, Pr. Sarigiannis also explained that Theragnosis combines cutting-edge technology with clinical practice and the treatment of diseases such as cancer. It has the tools to achieve precise detection and creates treatment regimens that accurately target the point at which cancer and other diseases are detected. As he stated, NHRF’s team is trying "to combine different technologies, especially because of the technology of theragnosis, that will allow [them] to diagnose exactly where the problem lies and, at simultaneously, use that same tool to treat the disease in a highly targeted way.

As he also said, the cost of the project exceeds the sum of €30 million and has already been secured with the support of the Recovery and Resilience Fund and the European Investment Bank. It will be combined with the integrated cancer research centre that is already operating as part of the NHRF. The integrated Cancer Centre at the NHRF will enhance the collaboration between researchers, hospital clinicians and patients, aided among else by the research center’s location in the heart of Athens, within a short distance from some of the country's major hospitals. This new addition is expected to add to the National Hellenic Research Foundation’s position as a point of reference for Southeastern Europe and the Middle East.

Read also via Greek News Agenda: "Athena" Research Center’s new Robotics Unit to specialize in precision medicine, agri-food, drones and industrial production services; Students from 27 countries at international program AUTh Medical School

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