On the occasion of the national anniversary of October 28^th, 1940, the National Archaeological Museum (NAM) has published online a selection of valuable archival photographs documenting the concealment of antiquities during World War II. In the shadow of war and throughout the Nazi occupation the employees of the first museum of the country were assigned the task of safeguarding the archaeological treasures against destruction and looting. (Cover photo: NAM 1940-41. The Kouros statue (inv. no. 2720), dated around 600 BC, from Sounion, ready to by hidden below the floor of its exhibition room).

“The safekeeping of antiquities during the occupation and the ensuing care for the reconstitution of the National Archaeological Museum were posts of responsibility before which we stand today with respect, admiration and gratitude”, notes Dr. Maria Lagogianni-Georgakarakos, former and honorary Director of the National Archaeological Museum, in the statement accompanying the online exhibition.

The burial of marble sculptures. The hermaic stele (inv. no 385) of Sosistratos kosmetes of ephebes, the statue of Aphrodite (inv. no 3524) of Syracuse type, the statue (inv. no 1828) of a man of the early 1^st century BC, from Delos, a statue of a seated woman (inv. no 380) from Rheneia, dated in the 2^nd century BC, and two statues of Hermes, from Aigion (inv. no 241) and Troizen (inv. no 243) both of the Roman period and copies of classical and late classical prototypes, can be seen in the pit. (Photo NAM)

While on the Greco–Italian war front Greek heroic soldiers were accomplishing the epic feat of the «No» crying out the famous battle cry «Aera» («Air»), another catchphrase sounded in the spaces of the museum. «Fire up» was one of the commands given by the sculptor Andreas Panagiotakis when the craftsmen pulled with chains and ropes the marble statues in order to place them in large pits they had opened in the north wing.

In April 1941 the museum looked deserted. Sculptures, bronze and clay artworks had been packed and transported to various raid shelters in Athens (35 crates were stored in the cave of the Enneakrounos and another 22 in the prison of Socrates near the Acropolis) the gold objects had been hidden away in the basements of the Bank of Greece, the large statues had been deposited in large trenches that were dug in the floor of the museum halls.

Drawing of a pit in the National Archaeological Museum for the burial of marble sculptures (Photo NAM)

Pulley transportation of the marble statue of Themis (inv. no 231), dated around 300 BC, from Rhamnous, Attica (left), The burial of the marble statue of Poseidon (inv. no 235), dated around 125-100 BC, from Melos (right) (Photos NAM)

Packing of the Geometric amphora (inv. no 803), of the years around 760-750 BC, from Dipylon, Athens, and other vases before hiding (Photo NAM)

Christos Karouzos and Semni Papaspyridi-Karouzou were the leading archaeologists that together with other archaeologists, museum guards, and their families, and many other people undertook the hiding of antiquities in 1940-1941. Testimonies and personal experiences of Semni Karouzou relating to that dramatic period were presented in March 1967 and published in 1984 in the Proceedings of the First Congress of the Greek Archaeologists Association. Referring specifically to the National Archaeological Museum, Semni Karouzou hands down to us: «It took six whole months, over the entire duration of the epic advance on the Albanian front, for our antiquities to be safely stored, the fate of which was a matter of such great concern to the people upon hearing about the war… Very early in the morning before the moonset, those who had undertaken this task were gathering to work in the Museum, it was night when they were leaving to go home». «When the occupation army entered the capital in April 1941, the task of concealing the ancient treasures of the National Museum had already been completed».

Christos Karouzos and Semni Papaspyridi-Karouzou. When Athens was occupied by the German army in 1941, the Karouzos were the only archaeologists in Greece to withdraw their membership of the German Archaeological Institute in protest (Photo: Draft of the letter sent by the Karouzos to the German Archaeological Institute of Athens, Source: Review Archaeological Issues, Sept/Dec2021). The letter was forwarded to Berlin through Walther Wrede, Director of the Athens Institute and representative of the Nazi Party in Greece. The Karouzos escaped imprisonment in a concentration camp thanks to the intervention of certain prominent German archaeologists. (Source: Wikipedia Semni Karouzou, Wikipedia Christos Carouzos).

In his interview of the 16^th June 1945, Christos Karouzos, Director of the National Archaeological Museum, states to the philological periodical Eleftera Grammata: «Since many years the Institute had stopped having any relation to Science and it was imperative to cut short their hope that they would achieve anything at all by making an attempt, which I could guess would be systematic and methodical, to stain the reputation of us all with innocent propositions for peaceful cultural collaboration».

The bronze statue of Poseidon, or Zeus according to another view (inv. no 15161), dated around 460 BC, from the sea at Artemision, Euboea, covered with tar paper, before its hiding (Photo NAM)

Pit in a room of the museum filled with sculptures, before their hiding (Photo NAM)

National Archaeological Museum, 1940-1941. Hiding of funerary vases and reliefs in the basement (upper left), Rectangular pit for the hiding of the sculptures in the Room of Classical Funerary Sculptures (upper right), Placement of antiquities in boxes for hiding (lower), (Photos: NAM)

National Archaeological Museum, 1940-1941. Burial of entrance to a room for the hiding of antiquities (left), Museum Room with empty cases after the removal of antiquities for hiding (right) (Photos: NAM)

National Archaeological Museum, 1941. Sacks with sand protected the windows of the new extension of the Museum building. Antiquities were stored for hiding inside this part of the building (left), National Archaeological Museum, after 1949. Works in progress for the improvement of the Museum building (right) (Photos: NAM)

To uncover the buried antiquities was the main priority after the end of the war. Along with the anxiety about their fate: «What had happened under the thick layer of sand, which was the state of preservation of the buried sculptures…». Semni Karouzou later recalled that "It was with pride for our people that I was assured, in the end of the war when the boxes were opened and the antiquities received, despite [the] fatally insufficient supervision [of the packing process] not a single gold object, no precious gem was missing". After the end of World War II, Christos Karouzos and Semni Karouzou were responsible for reinstalling the museum collections, using the catalogues Karouzou had made; this reinstallation was completed in 1947.

List of hidden objects (Photo: NAM)

As Semni Karouzou narrates, unique was the emotion when in 1947 the first three halls of the museum were opened, in the new wing with its entrance on Tositsa street: «It was the first presentation of antiquities after the war. At that time the 100 years since the founding of the French Archaeological School were also celebrated and it was the first gathering of archaeologists from all over the world. They had the opportunity among the other known and beloved artworks of the Museum to admire a new acquisition since the end of the occupation. A splendid Kouros with his name engraved on the statue base: Aristodikos».

Moments from the recovery of the ancient statues describes for us in his own way George Seferis, the Greek Nobel prized poet,  in the Days:

«Tuesday, 4th of June 1946

Noon in the Archaeological Museum. They now unbury – some in crates and some placed totally nude in the soil – the statues. In one of the old large halls, familiar to us since our school days with its rigid appearance that recalled somewhat the austere public library, the workers were digging with pickaxes and shovels. The floor, if one did not look at the ceiling, the windows and the walls with the golden inscriptions, could have been any other location of excavations. The statues sunken still in the earth, were visible from the waist up naked, planted in fate. …It was a resurrection dance of rising figures, a Day of Reckoning of bodies that filled you with mad joy».

(Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens/Photographic Archive, © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports /Archaeological Receipts Fund, Editor of the Photographic Exhibitions and e-book: Dr. Maria Chidiroglou)

I.A.

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On "Ohi Day", meaning "Day of ‘No’", celebrated on October 28, we commemorate Greece’s defiant rejection of a fascist ultimatum during World War II, and the heroic counteroffensive against the subsequent Italian invasion of Greece.

The public holiday is Greece’s second national day – the first one being of course the Celebration of the Greek people’s insurgence against the Ottoman Empire on March 25, 1821, which marked the beginning of the Greek War of Independence that led to the establishment of the Modern Greek state.

Historical background – Italy in the interwar period

In the First World War, Italy was on the side of the Allies (or Entente) – that is, the victors. Italy had entered the alliance under promises of Italian territorial expansion against Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, and of enlargement of its African colonies. However, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles left Italians gravely disappointed, regarding the results of their involvement in the "Great War" as a "mutilated victory".

Hence, public sentiment in the country was negative, and this social turmoil was a decisive factor in the rise to power of Benito Mussolini and the National Fascist Party. Thanks to his propaganda, which focused on Italian irredentism and nationalism, and called for the expansion of Italy’s borders, Mussolini gained a great following. His militia organized the March on Rome in 1922, at which point he assumed office as Prime Minister, and remained the country’s dictator until his overthrow in 1943.

As could be expected, when Adolf Hitler came into power in Germany, the two fascist, militaristic, and expansionist regimes soon found common cause. In 1936, the Rome–Berlin Axis was proclaimed, while in 1939 the two countries signed the Pact of Steel, a formal military alliance committing each to support the other in war. Germany started World War II on September 1, 1939, by invading Poland, while Italy entered on 10 June 1940, after France was nearly defeated, hoping to share in the spoils of German victories.

Historical background – Greece in the interwar period

Greece had followed its own tumultuous path in the interwar period. Having been greatly divided over the prospect of its involvement in the Great War, it finally entered on the side of the Allies, succeeding in substantial gains. Yet, the country faced a harsh defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, reversing part of its territorial gains. The subsequent migratory influx from Asia Minor and economic difficulties lead to political instability with successive military coups.

This political turmoil along with the purported communist threat led to a coup by Ioannis Metaxas, who established a right-wing dictatorship in 1936, becoming Greece's Prime Minister, with the support of the King. There were however tensions between the two, with the King harboring strong pro-British sentiment, while Metaxas had pro-German feelings, in part due to his studies at the Berlin War Academy.

At the start of WWII, Greece tried to stay neutral, maintaining trade with both Axis and Allied countries. Greek ports and islands were useful for British naval operations in the eastern Mediterranean — something Mussolini saw as a threat. Greece forged closer ties with the UK, which granted a territorial guarantee to Greece against any Italian attack, while at the same time trying to maintain good relations with the Axis powers, especially Italy.

By late 1940, Nazi Germany had conquered most of Western Europe. Mussolini, eager not to be overshadowed, wanted quick territorial gains of his own — especially in the Balkans and North Africa. Italy had already occupied Albania (April 1939) and Libya. From there, Mussolini dreamed of creating an Italian-dominated Mediterranean. Greece's strategic location between the Balkans, the Aegean, and the Eastern Mediterranean made it an obvious target for the Fascist government, who aimed was to establish a Greek puppet state.

Signs of Italian aggression

Even before officially entering the war, Italy shown signs of aggression, with Italian divisions in Albania even moving towards the Greek border at some point. Metaxas had ordered Greek forces to a state of readiness, but still remained staunch in his efforts to maintain neutrality and good relations with Italy.

However, Italy accused Greece of secretly aiding the British (for example, allowing Royal Navy ships to refuel or shelter in Greek waters), using this as a pretext for its anti-Greek propaganda. An invasion seemed imminent, especially since Italy orchestrated border provocations and even repeatedly attacking Greek naval vessels and warships.

In the most striking of those instances, the Greek light cruiser Elli was sunk by the Italian submarine Delfino while harboring in the island of Tinos. The attack in fact took place on August 15, 1940, during the Feast of the Dormition of Virgin Mary, an important religious holiday for Greeks, celebrated with special solemnity in Tinos. Despite evidence of Italian responsibility, the Greek government attributed the attack to a submarine of unknown nationality – without however managing to prevent widespread anti-Italian sentiment in Greece.

The original Ohi Day

In the early hours of 28 October 1940, at around 3:00 a.m., the Italian ambassador to Greece, Emanuele Grazzi, arrived unannounced at the home of Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas in the suburb of Kifisia in Athens. He handed Metaxas a written ultimatum from Mussolini, which demanded that Greece allow Italian forces to enter Greek territory in order to occupy strategic sites, such as ports, airfields, and communication centers, without any resistance, in order to give Italy control of Greece’s military and logistical infrastructure.

The ultimatum implied that failure to comply would mean war, and Metaxas was given only three hours to respond. The text of the ultimatum accused Greece of favoring the Allies and claimed Italy needed to ensure its own security in the Balkans.

After reading the ultimatum, Metaxas calmly replied to the Italian ambassador in French (the diplomatic language of the time): "Alors, c’est la guerre (So, this is war)" – which means that the famous "No" was never uttered as such. However, this one-word answer was immediately used in the headlines of Greek Press at the time, to encapsulate Greece’s refusal to agree to the terms of Mussolini. Greece hence became the first country to oppose fascist Italy in its expansionist campaign – and would soon also become the first to defeat it in the field of battle.

The Greco–Italian War

Just a few hours following the rejection of the ultimatum, at 5:30 a.m., Italian forces trespassed Greece's borders with Albania (a puppet state of Italy at the time), marking the start of the Greco–Italian War. Mussolini expected this to be an easy victory for his country. However, despite being outnumbered and under-equipped, the Greek army launched an impressive counter-attack.

With the onset of the Italian offensive, Papagos, until then the Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff, was appointed commander-in-chief of the newly established General Headquarters. During the first few days, Italians prepared their assault, bombarding the Greek positions with aircraft and artillery.

In the first days of the war, Italians attacked through Epirus and the Pindus mountains, aiming for Ioannina; their progress was slow, partly owed to the harsh weather conditions. Greek counterattacks quickly stopped the Italian advance, and pushed the invading forces back, deep into Albanian territory. By December 1940, the Greek Army had captured Albanian towns that had served as Italian bases (Korçë, Gjirokastër, and Himara). The front stabilized in early 1941 due to winter and exhaustion, but Greece had clearly won the campaign militarily.

The Greek counteroffensive was the first Allied land victory of World War II, and it stunned both Mussolini and Hitler. The success of the Greek troops was owed not only to an intimate understanding of local geography - particularly the rugged terrain of Epirus and the Pindus Mountains; it was also the result of careful preparation and strategic planning.

Greece's dictator, Ioannis Metaxas, had a past as a career officer; his authoritarian regime was stifling to the free-thinking people - nevertheless, his military background proved helpful under those dire circumstances. Already at the time when he assumed power in 1936, one of his priorities was rearming and modernizing the Greek military, foreseeing possible external threats. From the moment of the Italian invasion, mobilization was swift and disciplined, as the General Staff had prepared detailed contingency plans.

As far as equipment goes, Greece was of course still direly lacking compared to Italy: Army weapons were a mix of older and newer models — some dating from World War I, others purchased from France, Britain, and Czechoslovakia in the 1930s. The country lacked heavy armor and air power, with only a few light vehicles against Italy's tanks, while there was also a shortage of military aircraft compared to Italy.

However, these shortages were counterbalanced by the army’s military training and the advantages offered by the Epirus and Western Macedonia mountainous terrain, which favored defensive warfare. Greek troops, especially local men, knew the terrain intimately, while Italian armored units and heavy artillery struggled on narrow, muddy mountain roads. Civilian populations in the region provided priceless logistical support, shelter, and information — turning the invasion into a national, collective defense.

Greece’s resistance became a symbol of courage, national pride and defiance against the Axis powers, leading the foreign Press to laud the Greek Army’s heroic stance, and even helping to raise the profile of the small nation abroad.

Aftermath

Italy’s defeat in the Greco-Italian War became a major embarrassment for Mussolini, compelling its German allies to intervene and secure its southern flank, invading Greece through Bulgaria on 6 April 1941 (“Operation Marita”).

Initially, thanks to the strong fortifications organized on the Bulgarian front (known as "Metaxas Line") the Greek army was able to hold back the Nazi invasion. However, the Germans had simultaneously began the invasion of Yugoslavia. From there, they launched another attack, hence bypassing the Metaxas Line, and soon captured Thessaloniki.

Grossly outnumbered –despite a small reinforcement from British and Commonwealth forces– the Greek army, already was unable to fend off the advancement of the combined German and Italian powers, especially given the German air supremacy. Mainland Greece was conquered by the end of April, while Crete followed soon, despite the fierce allied resistance on the island.

Greece thus entered the harsh period of the Axis occupation, which -partly as a reprisal for the humiliation of the Fascist army, and for the subsequent actions of the Greek resistance movements- was particularly oppressive for the local population. Several mass executions took place during this period, while in the largest cities hundreds of thousands died due to mass starvation (known as the Great Famine) caused by large-scale plunder and requisitions, the destruction of the country's infrastructure, and the Allied naval blockade of Greece. The country would finally be liberated in the fall of 1944.

Celebration of Ohi Day

Ohi Day -sometimes transliterated as Oxi Day, and also known in Greece as "the Anniversary of ‘No’" or "Anniversary of October 28"- is one of the two national days of Greece (the first one being the declaration of the Greek War of Independence which led to the birth of the modern state of Greece). It’s a national public holiday, with schools and the entire public sector closed for the day, while the vast majority of businesses also do not function (usually with the exception of some cafés, restaurants and confectionery shops).

Just like the anniversary of the Greek Revolution (celebrated of March 25, which is also the day of the religious Feast of the Annunciation), Ohi Day is celebrated with great pomp; public buildings and central streets are decorated with Greek flags, and student parades held across Greece. A military parade also takes place – not in Athens, as is the tradition on March 25, but instead in Thessaloniki, to honor the anniversary of the city’s liberation from the Ottoman Empire on O.S. October 27-28 (November 9-10), 1912, as part of the First Balkan War.

Read also via Greek News Agenda: The Battle of Crete; Museum of the victims of Nazism in Distomo; The impact of Greek Ohi Day to American public opinion; Hilary Roberts on German and British Photography in Greece 1940-1945

N.M. (Intro image: Greek gun crew at work in the campaign in Albania, 1940-41. Office of War Information Photograph, 91200-ZC [LOC-USZ62-94574, Lot 11618-9, National Museum of the U.S. Navy])

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For many years, the month of September has provided a focused period for celebrating the maritime sector, raising awareness about its critical role in trade and the economy, and addressing challenges related to safety, security, and environmental sustainability. Greece, a global maritime leader, managing approximately 20% of the world's shipping fleet, thanks to its long maritime tradition and strategic geographical position, once more asserted its important role at the international events that took place in September 2025.

The most important of these events is the global celebration of World Maritime Day stands, observed on the last Thursday of the month to highlight the importance of shipping safety, maritime security, and the marine environment. Other notable events included the London International Shipping Week (LISW) and the 11th Ship IT Conference in Athens. On the occasion of World Maritime Day, the Embassy of Greece in London also hosted a high-level panel discussion on maritime security.

Greece Strengthens Maritime Ties at London International Shipping Week

On 15–16 September, Minister of Maritime Affairs and Insular Policy, Vassilis Kikilias, visited the UK for London International Shipping Week (LISW25), reaffirming Greece’s global maritime leadership and advancing cooperation with key UK and international partners.

On September 16, Minister Kikilias participated in a keynote panel at the Capital Link Shipping and Marine Services Forum, where he emphasized Greece’s leading role in global shipping and its vital contribution to international trade and economic growth.

In a meeting with the Secretary-General of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), Arsenio Dominguez, the day before, discussions focused on the shipping industry’s energy transition and the importance of coordinated global action, leaving no one behind, particularly the industry.

During his visit, the Greek Minister also held his first meeting with the UK Minister for Transport (responsible for maritime policy), Keir Mather MP, to explore ways to further strengthen Greece–UK maritime relations, building on long-standing ties between our two countries.

Finally, in talks with senior officials from the UK Border Security Command, shared migration challenges were addressed, with Minister Kikilias highlighting the vital work of the Hellenic Coast Guard.

Panel Event on Maritime Security and International Cooperation at the Hellenic Residence

On 24 September, the Embassy hosted a high-level panel discussion at the Hellenic Residence in London titled “Setting the Compass: International Cooperation for Maritime Security.” Held on the eve of World Maritime Day 2025, the event brought together IMO Secretary-General Arsenio Dominguez, senior officials, industry leaders, and academics for an in-depth exchange on maritime security.

In his opening remarks, HE Yannis Tsaousis, Greece's Ambassador to the UK, highlighted Greece’s longstanding role as a leading maritime nation and reaffirmed its commitment to maritime security—both during its 2025–2026 term on the UN Security Council and during its current and prospective membership in the IMO Council. He also referenced key areas for international cooperation outlined by Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis during the high-level UN Security Council debate hosted by Greece in May 2025.

The panel discussion, moderated by Ms Elisabeth Braw, Senior Fellow at the Atlantic Council, featured Mr Arsenio Dominguez (IMO), Ms Rosie Seville (UK Permanent Representative to the IMO), and Mr Dimitris Monioudis (member of the Greek Shipping Cooperation Committee). They explored today’s maritime security landscape and emphasized the vital role of international collaboration across public and private sectors, alongside the framework of international law.

From the policy sphere, the evening expanded to first-hand perspectives from the open seas via a live connection with Captain Athanassios Moschos aboard the Greek vessel Athens 04, sailing across the Atlantic. The voices of the younger generation were also heard, with remarks by Ms Faye Papadimitriou, who attended the May 2025 UNSC debate.

Ambassador Yannis Tsaousis Joins Panel at LISW25 to Mark Clean Maritime Day

The London International Shipping Week (LISW) is a global maritime event which showcases the UK's shipping industry to an international audience. Ambassador Yannis Tsaousis participated in a panel at the UK’s Department for Transport (DFT) & Innovate UK Business Connect event marking Clean Maritime Day on September 18, where he exchanged views on maritime decarbonization.

The Greek Ambassador and Permanent Representative to the IMO, emphasized, among others, that Greece has consistently engaged constructively at the national, EU, and international levels—working closely with partners within the IMO—to advance shipping’s energy transition in a sustainable and realistic way. He also stressed that global cooperation, including the active involvement of industry stakeholders, is essential to ensuring the effectiveness of maritime decarbonization.

11th Ship IT Conference 2025 in Athens

The 11th Ship IT Conference 2025, was successfully concluded on Tuesday, September 30, 2025. Throughout three sessions, more than 220 participants engaged with 40 distinguished speakers, exploring how intelligent and digital technologies enhance both business and operational objectives within a cyber-secure shipping environment.

This year’s event featured among its keynote speakers Stefanos Gkikas, Deputy Minister of Maritime Affairs & Insular Policy, who spoke about green transition and digitalization as the two key pillars shaping the ministry’s strategy, in alignment with environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) objectives. He further highlighted Greece’s active participation in the “Clean Energy Marine Hubs” initiative on the international stage. The initiative aims to mobilize the shipping industry to unlock global production, transport, and use of low-carbon marine fuels.

Source: Newsletter of the Embassy of Greece in London, July-September 2025; Hellenic Ministry of Maritime Affairs & Insular Policy

Photos (except where noted): John Kolikis

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The Municipal Theater of Piraeus, a landmark of the city of Piraeus, celebrates its 130th anniversary this year. With a long and remarkable history linked to that of Piraeus, the Theater, which opened its doors on April 19, 1895, reflects the economic, social, and political life of Greece's leading port.

The decision to build the theater was taken in 1883, at a time when Piraeus was in its economic, industrial and cultural heyday. The presence of eminent figures from the worlds of literature and the arts in the city helped advance the idea of its creation, along with the establishment of other important cultural institutions.

At that time, Piraeus had a population of 25,000 inhabitants, having become an industrial, commercial and shipping hub. Given the city’s economic prosperity, the founding of the Theater would not only offer a place that could host various events but, most importantly, it would be a status symbol. It should be noted that, by the late 19^th century, not only Athens was the site of the National Theater of Greece, but also the important urban centers of Hermoupolis (the capital of the Cyclades, on Syros) and Patras boasted grand theater buildings (both primarily influenced by La Scala in Milan).

The construction of the Municipal Theater began on April 1884 and lasted for about a decade. The official inauguration, although the work was not yet complete, took place on April 9, 1895, by mayor Theodoros Retsinas.

The building

The theater in the center of Piraeus, facing away from the commercial harbor. It was designed by architect Ioannis Lazarimos, born in Piraeus in 1849, who had studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, but also in Germany. Lazarimos designed a majestic building, 45 m long and 34 m wide, not including the marble porticos and exterior staircases. It combines elements of French and German traditions, with the portico, entrance foyer, staircase, and large foyer on the first floor clearly inspired by German eclecticism, while the auditorium, stage, two cafeterias, and auxiliary spaces (dressing rooms, offices, etc.) are typical of French theaters. The primary inspiration for the interior design was the Théâtre de l'Odéon in Paris.

The theatre’s façade is impressive thanks to its monumental gateway with its four Corinthian columns, disproportionately slender in relation to their height, and a triangular pediment. The roof of the building is topped by a terrace that also features a pediment.

In addition to the auditorium, which can seat 600 spectators, the theater would include three rows of 23 boxes each, for a total of 69 boxes that can seat 414 spectators, and a balcony with a capacity of 300 spectators. The municipal theater could seat a total of 1,314 spectators and, if necessary, 1,500 spectators.

A history linked with the life of the city

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the heart of the city beat at the Foyer, a meeting place for the bourgeoisie, artists, and the city's intellectual life. The Municipal Theater of Piraeus has had the privilege of hosting some of the leading figures of the Greek theater scene, such as: Aimilios Veakis, Dimitris Rontiris, Mimi Fotopoulos, Vasilis Diamantopoulos, Mimi Traiforos, Mano Katrakis, Alekos Alexandrakis, Dimitris Horn, Kyveli, Aspasia Papathanassiou, Katina Paxinou, and Elli Lambeti.

It has also hosted soirées, exhibitions by important painters, and lectures by important intellectuals, as well as concerts by some of the country’s most important composers, including Menelaos Pallantios, Manos Hadjidakis, Mikis Theodorakis, Dionysis Savvopoulos, and Giorgos Kouroupos.

In the 1910s, Greece -and, by extension, Piraeus and the Municipal Theater- entered a troubled period, with the Balkan Wars being followed by the Great Division, Greece’s entrance in WWI, the Greco-Turkish War and the Asia Minor Catastrophe. According to the needs of the times, the premises of the theater were used as barracks, schools, or to host various public services. Especially following the Asia Minor Catastrophe, in the early 1920s, it housed Greek refugees from the Ottoman Empire who had arrived at the port of Piraeus having left behind their homes and all their belongings.

During the Nazi Occupation (1941-1944), the Municipal Theater was commandeered by the occupying forces to provide entertainment for the troops. Moreover, the frequent bombing of the port during World War II, and in particular the Allied bombing of the city on January 11, 1944, took a heavy toll on the building.

In 1980, the Municipal Theater was designated a protected monument, but it suffered significant damage during the 1981 earthquake, with repairs beginning in 1984. The earthquake of September 1999, combined with the regular use of the building for exhibitions, civil weddings, and school events, added to the existing issues.

Between 2008 and 2013, the Municipal Theater underwent extensive restoration works by the Ministry of Culture's Directorate of Protection and Restoration of Modern and Contemporary Monuments. Since it was restored to its former glory, it has once again become a landmark of Piraeus, housing performances by important figures of the arts, and attracting audiences from all over Attica to its packed auditoriums. The Municipal Theater has hence successfully regained its status and established itself as one of the most important theaters in the Greece.

Translated from the original article from Grèce Hebdo (Photo source: Municipal Theater of Piraeus official Facebook page)

Read also via Greek News Agenda: The architectural treasure of Piraeus documented and recorded by MONUMENTA; The regeneration of Piraeus; Lycabettus Theater opens up again

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The Revolution of 3 September 1843 marked the end of absolute monarchy in Greece. The successful uprising, led by the Greek Army with the support of a large part of the Greek people, resulted in the granting of a constitution and the adoption of universal suffrage. Among the main leaders of the revolt was cavalry colonel Dimitrios Kallergis.

Background – The first years of the Modern Greek State

The Greek War of Independence was declared in 1821, following almost four centuries of Ottoman occupation; thanks to the struggles of the people, and with the support of the Great Powers, Greece was officially recognised as an independent, sovereign state with the signing of the London Protocol on 3 February 1830 (O.S.). Its first head of the state was Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias but, in the aftermath of his assassination in 1831, the Great Powers designated the young Prince Otto of Wittelsbach, son of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, as King of Greece.

Because Otto was still considered a minor, a regency council, appointed by Otto's father, ruled in his place. The regents would soon become very unpopular, due to their authoritarianism and distrust of the Greek political parties. Otto arrived in February 1833, but it wasn’t until June 1835 that he reached the age of majority, ending the regency and assuming the throne as absolute monarch.

The Entry of King Otto of Greece in Athens (by Peter Von Hess, 1839, via Wikimedia Commons)

Bavarian authoritarianism and what was generally perceived as disregard for the locals perpetuated popular discontent, which was further fueled by the country’s dire economic situation, as Greece was facing a staggering debt and the king made massive budget cuts and raised taxes. In 1843, Greece would eventually declare bankruptcy.

The king had repeatedly rejected the popular demand for a constitution, until a conspiracy began to develop in 1840. Yannis Makriyannis, a distinguished fighter in the Greek War of Independence, initiated several other veterans who felt abandoned by the government, along with a number of prominent politicians from the parties of the time – most notably, Andreas Metaxas, member (and later leader) of the Russian Party and Andreas Londos, leader of the English Party (while Makriyannis himself was a supporter of the French party). In 1843, they brought the officer Dimitrios Kallergis into the conspiracy, to secure military support.

Dimitrios Kallergis

Dimitrios Kallergis was born in Crete in 1803, and came from a historic family line of the area of Mylopotamos. Following his father’s death, while he was still a minor, he was sent to St. Petersburg to continue his studies, and then to Vienna where he studied medicine. He abandoned his studies to join the Greek struggle for independence and, in January 1822, he arrived on the island of Hydra, bringing with him military supplies.

Left: Portrait of Dimitrios Kallergis by unknown artist, National Historical Museum of Greece (via Wikimedia Commons); Right: Portrait of Yannis Makriyannis by unknown artist, National Historical Museum of Greece (via Wikimedia Commons)

He took part in a series of military operations, and played a leading role in the revolutionary front of Crete since 1825, but without success. In 1826 he participated in the failed attack of Colonel Fabvier against Thebes; in 1827, he was the leader of the Cretan forces in the Battle of Phaleron, where the Greeks sustained a disastrous defeat. He was captured by the Ottomans, but was released after his family paid a large ransom.

Kallergis was a strong supporter of Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, Greece’s first head of state, and even served as his aide-de-camp, as he pursued military career as an officer. Following the Governor’s assassination in 1831, Kallergis placed his support in his brother Augustine Kapodistrias, actively participating in the civil conflicts of the period. During the Bavarian regency, he was briefly imprisoned as a supporter of the pro-Russian party.

By 1843, Kallergis had become a colonel of the cavalry; at that time, he was initiated into the constitutionalist conspiracy (possibly by the leader of the Russian party, Andreas Metaxas). He was put in charge of the movement’s military wing, and they arranged for him to be transferred from the town of Argos and become Commander of the Athens cavalry. The commanders of the Athens infantry and the Military Academy had also become part of the conspiracy. Metaxas, Makriyannis and Kallergis were designated as the movement’s leaders.

The 3 September 1843 Revolution, lithography by unknown folk artist, Benaki Museum (via Wikimedia Commons)

The 3 September Revolution

Although the group had initially agreed on the symbolic date of 25 March 1844, they had to rush the process as too many members had been introduced to the conspiracy and the leaders feared exposure. The gendarmerie indeed discovered the conspiracy and surrounded Makriyannis’s house on the evening of 2 September 1843 (O.S.). Kallergis put himself at the head of the Athens garrison and marched from Monastiraki towards the Royal Palace (nowadays the Hellenic Parliament House), with the men chanting "Hail to the Constitution".

Kallergis sent a unit to lift the siege around Makriyannis’s house, and others to free political prisoners from the notorious "Medrese" prison, to occupy various public buildings –including the National Mint and the Bank of Greece– and arrest ministers. In the early hours of 3 September, he was joined in front of the Palace by a crowd led by Makriyannis. King Otto, still working in his office, was informed of the army’s mutiny, and sent his Minister of Defense to negotiate; after the latter was arrested by the mutineers, the king had to emerge from a window and address the mounted Kallergis.

Colonel Kallergis announced that the crowd would not withdraw until the king agreed to convene a National Assembly to draft a constitution. The king was also asked to dismiss the Cabinet and call a national election. Otto tried to stall, asking to meet with the ambassadors of the three Great Powers to discuss his options, but the insurgents did not allow foreign diplomats to enter the Palace.

After some consideration, Otto agreed to all the demands of the mutineers; he signed the decrees needed for the convocation of a National Assembly, and appointed a provisional government headed by Andreas Metaxas to prepare elections for a constitutional assembly. The bloodless revolution officially ended in the afternoon of 3 September, when the crowd was finally dispersed, after it became known all their demands had been accepted.

The 3 September 1843 Revolution, early 20th-century postcard (via Wikimedia Commons)

Aftermath

On 7 September 1843 (O.S.), Metaxas’s provisional government called for national elections; these would take place over several days in October and November 1843. All Greek males over 25 were allowed to vote. The election resulted in the "Third of September National Assembly of the Greeks in Athens". The National Assembly promulgated the Greek Constitution of 1844 in February, which was adopted on 18 March 1844; it was then dissolved and elections were proclaimed for the first regular parliament. The first Constitution of Greece established the Constitutional Monarchy and was based on the French Constitution of 1830 and the Belgian Constitution of 1831.

By royal decree, the day of 3 September was designated as a national holiday, and Dimitrios Kallergis was awarded a medal and was named military commander of Athens. He was also elected to the constitutional assembly, as a representative of Cretans (although Crete was did not form part of the Greek state at the time). In remembrance of the revolution, the former "Palace Square" would be renamed "Syntagma (Constitution) Square".

Otto would eventually be dethroned following a coup in 1862; in 1863, the Greek National Assembly elected Prince William of Denmark King of the Hellenes under the regnal name of George I.

In 1845, Kallergis resigned from the army and left Greece for London and later Paris. He served as minister in the 1854-1855 government under Alexandros Mavrokordatos, and then as ambassador to France. He is believed to have played a part in the negotiations that led to the ascension of King George. In 1867 he suffered a stroke in Paris and was brought back to Athens, where he died in April.

Read also via Greek News Agenda: Ioannis Kapodistrias, Modern Greece’s first head of state; 3 February 1830: Greece becomes a state; "Greece 2021" | The celebrations for the 200th anniversary of the country’s Independence War

N.M. (Intro image: The 3 September 1843 Revolution by unknown artist, Athens City Museum; Kallergis is portrayed at the centre on horseback, while Otto is shown at the Palace’s window wearing a red fez [via Wikimedia Commons])

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Greek Art Now is a project on the Google Arts & Culture platform, aiming to digitize selected artworks from the collections of seven major Greek museums, and contribute to their promotion on for a global audience.

The project was realized with the support of the Ministry of Culture and is the result of a multi-layered collaboration between the Google Arts & Culture platform, the National Gallery - Alexandros Soutsos Museum, the National Museum of Contemporary Art (EMST), and the Metropolitan Organization of Museums of Visual Arts of Thessaloniki (MOMus) - a museums' network comprised of the Museum of Modern Art, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Thessaloniki Museum of Photography, the Experimental Center for the Arts and the Museum Alex Mylona.

The digital exhibition presents the evolution of Greek art from the 19th century to the present day through more than 60 digital stories and 1,800 high-resolution images, including works by contemporary artists and selected exhibits from the internationally renowned Kostakis Collection.

Users of the Google Arts & Culture platform can take virtual tours of the participating museums, explore artworks in the finest detail with the Art Camera, and discover the hidden stories and narratives behind the works.

Users even have the opportunity to interact with some of the works in original and creative ways. Through the platform, they can create digital reconstructions and explore them from a completely new, interactive perspective.

In addition, the exhibition “A World Without Blue”—part of the platform's Pocket Gallery—offers an immersive augmented reality experience. Artworks can be discovered virtually and independently of location directly from a mobile phone.

The innovative project was presented on June 10 at the National Museum of Contemporary Art (EMST) in Athens.

Addressing the event, Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis thanked and congratulated the Google group, the Ministry of Culture, and everyone who contributed to the implementation of the project, expressing the hope that many users will now have the opportunity to discover Greece’s vibrant modern and contemporary artistic production. He also emphasized that it has always been a central priority of the government’s cultural policy to demonstrate that Greece is not just the heir of "a glorious past, but also boasts a strong present and a promising future."

The event was also addressed by Minister of Culture Lina Mendoni, who stated among else: "The cultural sector holds a special place within the national digital strategy developed and implemented by the government under Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis. In recent years, the Ministry of Culture has significantly advanced the planning and implementation of digital projects – with a clear focus on modernization and reform, both in terms of infrastructure and the development of high-quality products and services. "

As she explained, for the implementation of this project, human, institutional, and financial resources at both national and European levels were strategically mobilized, accompanied by the transfer of knowledge and consolidation of expertise through synergetic collaboration with scientific, research, and private sector partners in the IT and communications industries, both domestically and internationally. She added that she is "convinced that the result fully meets the goals we set at the beginning of the collaboration between our three cultural institutions – the National Gallery, EMST, and MOMus – and Google, and represents real added value for both the museum collections and the platform itself."

In her speech, Peggy Antonakou, Regional General Manager for Southeast Europe, pointed out that this collaboration between Google and the Ministry of Culture and leading cultural institutions in Greece underscores the importance of contemporary Greek art, with technology making it accessible to everyone, at any point and place, while Amit Sood, Director of Google’s Cultural Institute and founder of the Google Art Project, said that "Greece – a country with an ancient and significant cultural tradition – has inspired us to highlight its modern artistic creativity so that more people can discover its excellence and creativity."

“Greek Art Now” is now available on Google Arts & Culture and for app downloading on Android or iOS.

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Mikis Theodorakis, a name synonymous with Greek culture and political engagement, left behind an immense musical legacy, a significant part of which is his profound contribution to film scores. As we mark the 100th anniversary of his birth in 2025, we remember how the internationally acclaimed Greek composer left his indelible mark on cinema. Beyond his symphonies, oratorios, and popular songs, Theodorakis's film music earned him international acclaim, making him one the most famous Greek composers of the 20th century. His cinematic melodies, often composed under challenging circumstances like imprisonment or exile, became iconic, gracing Oscar-winning films and earning him nominations and awards from prestigious organizations such as the Golden Globes, Grammys, and BAFTAs.

Theodorakis's journey into film composition began in 1953 with the Greek-American director Greg Tallas's "Barefoot Battalion". His international breakthrough, however, came a few years later with Michael Powell's 1959 film "Honeymoon" (Luna de Miel). The film featured his recurring musical theme, the "Honeymoon Song," which later became widely known in Greece as "Αν θυμηθείς τ' ονειρό μου" (If You Remember My Dream). Such was its popularity that the Beatles even covered it in 1964.

During a prolific period for Greek cinema, Theodorakis continued to make his mark. He composed for Alekos Alexandrakis's "Συνοικία το Ονειρο" (A Neighbourhood Called 'Τhe Dream') in 1961, a landmark film for Greek cinema known for its melancholic atmosphere and the orchestral "Ο Χορός του Ρίκο". The film's standout song, "Βρέχει στη Φτωχογειτονιά" (It's Raining in the Poor Neighborhood), with lyrics by Tasos Leivaditis, was first performed by Grigoris Bithikotsis in a classic scene and became widely covered.

Theodorakis also forged significant collaborations with renowned directors. He scored Jules Dassin's "Phaedra" (1961/1962), starring Melina Mercouri and Anthony Perkins. For this film, he showcased his versatility by adopting a more jazz-oriented style, with Mercouri herself performing two notable songs: "Σε Πότισα Ροδόσταμο" and "Love Theme from Phaedra" (known as "Αστέρι μου Φεγγάρι μου"). His enduring partnership with Greek director Michael Cacoyannis began with "Electra" (1962), an adaptation of Euripides' tragedy, for which Theodorakis received a music award at the Thessaloniki Film Festival. His score for "Electra" was innovative, using elementary musical instruments to create a ritualistic rhythm and incorporating natural sounds.

In 1962, French actor and director Raymond Rouleau filmed “Les Amants de Teruel,” with Mikis Theodorakis participating in the soundtrack. The film's theme, actually the melody of his song “Ομορφη πόλη" (Beautiful City) would later acquire French lyrics and be sung by none other than Edith Piaf!

The zenith of his cinematic career arrived in 1964 with Michael Cacoyannis's "Zorba the Greek". The film, which earned three Oscars, featured Theodorakis's complete soundtrack and etched his name into global consciousness. The iconic "Zorba's Dance" (Sirtaki), performed by Anthony Quinn, remains one of the most powerful and recognizable images in cinema history, heard and danced worldwide even decades later. His work on "Zorba the Greek" earned him nominations for both a Golden Globe and a Grammy.

Theodorakis's music was deeply intertwined with his political activism, a connection evident in his cinema work. While in exile in 1969, he managed to collaborate with Costa-Gavras on the legendary political thriller "Z". Despite being in exile and unable to write music specifically for the film, he granted Gavras permission to use any of his existing pieces, which were then adapted by a French composer. Theodorakis's rich, furious, and detailed palette of sounds perfectly complemented the film, which gained immense international recognition, winning two Oscars. For his powerful score, Theodorakis was awarded a BAFTA for Best Original Music in 1970.

His second collaboration with Costa-Gavras was on "State of Siege" (1972). For this film, Theodorakis incorporated the Chilean group Los Calchakis, expressing his support for the Latin American struggle against imperialism. Although a larger work was intended, Gavras ultimately chose to cut much of the score from the film, as he wanted to avoid an overly epic tone. Later editions released the full intended soundtrack, which blended traditional Andean sounds with the vocals of Los Calchakis.

In 1973, Theodorakis cemented his Hollywood presence with Sidney Lumet's "Serpico", starring Al Pacino. Lumet specifically sought out Theodorakis, who had recently left Greece, valuing his status as a "stalwart leftist" within the European artistic elite. While on a major U.S. tour, Theodorakis provided Lumet with just 14 minutes of music that scored the film. His work on "Serpico" earned him another Grammy nomination and a BAFTA nomination. His name appeared prominently in the film's opening credits, second only to Al Pacino's and before Lumet's, a testament to his global recognition. The score uniquely blended traditional bouzouki sounds with more modern jazz influences.

Theodorakis continued his prolific work, collaborating with Cacoyannis again on "The Trojan Women" (1971) and "Iphigenia" (1977), and with Dassin on "The Rehearsal" (1974), a film about the Polytechnic uprising. In 1980, he composed the music for Nikos Tzimas's classic political film, "The Man with the Carnation," depicting the final days of Nikos Beloyannis.

Mikis Theodorakis's filmography is a testament to his unparalleled talent, featuring scores that are undeniably national and political in character, yet capable of transcending borders. His music for cinema, often penned under the most adverse conditions, traveled the globe, graced classic films from Europe to Hollywood, garnered awards, and remains as emblematic and powerful today as when it was first created.

Honors and Awards Bestowed on Mikis Theodorakis for His Film Scores

1962: Awarded at the Thessaloniki Festival for his music in Michael Cacoyannis’s film Electra.

1965: Wins the Golden Globe from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for his music in Zorba the Greek.

BAFTA Awards (the British Academy Film Awards, the UK equivalent of the Oscars):

• 1970: Wins the BAFTA for Best Music for Z.
• 1974: Wins the BAFTA for Best Music for State of Siege.
• 1975: Wins the BAFTA for Best Music for Serpico.

Grammy Awards, presented annually in the U.S. by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences to honor outstanding achievements in the music industry:

• 1965: Wins the Grammy for his music in Zorba the Greek.
• 1974: Wins the Grammy for his music in Serpico.

• Awarded the “Erich Wolfgang Korngold” prize for his overall contribution to film music.

2002: Honored with the Erich Wolfgang Korngold award at the International Biennale for Film Music in Bonn, Germany

2007: The World Soundtrack Academy honored Theodorakis with a Lifetime Achievement Award for his entire body of work in film music, in a special ceremony (October 20) at the Ghent International Film Festival in Belgium.

I.L.

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The modern city of Athens is often perceived as a concrete jungle filled with tall apartment buildings; this building type, the polykatoikía, and its omnipresence in the Greek capital, is often considered to be dreary and unartistic. In recent years, however, the polykatoikía has been the subject of a reappraisal by academics, architects and urban theorists. The architectural, social and economic significance of these modernist apartment blocks, which line one street after another, has been revisited in the light of historical and contemporary urban contexts. A more anthropocentric vision is therefore applied, highlighting values such as simplicity and accessibility, as well as the liveliness and sociability of the city.

Background: Modern architecture and Greek exoticism

In 1933, the Fourth Congress of the Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM IV) was held in Athens, bringing together dozens of renowned architects from all over the world to discuss the new modern city of their time. Iconic architect Le Corbusier was among its organizers. The congress proved to be a turning point for modern Greek architecture, offering it a unique opportunity to define its identity in relation to the international avant-garde.

The conference culminated in the Athens Charter, which laid the foundation for urban planning based on four key functions: housing, work, recreation, and circulation. It advocated for the zoning of cities to improve living conditions, a concept that shaped post-war urban development.

The urban sprawl of Athens, an ancient city that returned to prominence as the capital of the modern Greek state in the first half of the 19th century, was not the result of industrial development, but rather of a series of events that led to population flows to the big cities. Yet a number of important modern buildings (schools, residential buildings, factories etc.) had just been completed in Athens.

Greek architects' faith in modern architecture was also demonstrated in an imaginative way by connecting modern architecture with traditional Greek architecture, which at the time seemed exotic to everyone. Greek architectural features (particularly those of the Cycladic islands) such as simple structures, abstract forms, absence of decoration, emphasis on functionality, etc. were considered modernist characteristics, if not the foundation of modernism (Kostas Tsiambaos, 2020 [in Greek]).

“Antiparochi”: the way to apartment building supremacy

In the post-war period, the Greek Civil War of 1946-49, together with a shift from rural work to industrial labor, led to a continued migration from the countryside to the big cities. This created an urgent need for housing, leading to the intense urbanization of the Greek capital after 1950. During this period and until the late 1970s, the population of Athens’ metropolitan area more than doubled, with the entire city experiencing an unprecedented construction boom.

In the central neighborhoods of Athens it was difficult to find enough space for the construction of apartment buildings. The 1929 law of horizontal ownership helped create the system of antiparochi, which could be roughly translated as "counter-providing": a landowner could turn over a plot of land to a constructor, who would build a where a polykatoikía where one or two-story house used to stand. In return, they would gain ownership of an agreed number of apartments in the finished building. Given that the Greek state could not afford to directly finance a social housing program, this system helped give the working classes access to low-cost housing. (By way of illustration, in 2011, 93.3% of the population of the municipality of Athens lived in multi-storey buildings, 75.5% of which were built before 1980.)

Whereas the multi-storey buildings of the inter-war period were designed by renowned architects such as Kitsikis, Nikolaidis and Panagiotakos, who sought to develop a modern urban typology using decorative forms from Art Deco, Bauhaus and Cubism, the polykatoikía of the post-war period became a product of real estate speculation for building contractors. Easily reproducible thanks to standardized plans, quick to erect and simple to finance, it became widespread as a type of housing for the working classes.

Building contractors would build apartment buildings, often selling the apartments before construction was completed; the first plans were drawn up in order to obtain a building permit, sometimes with minimal input from an architect, whose name did not always appear on official documents. These plans were based on “turnkey” sketches that could be easily adapted to a wide variety of situations  (Olga Moatsou-Ess, 2018).

Even this period, however, saw the creation of some important buildings by renowned architects of the time such as Valsamakis, Konstantinidis and Tombazis. These types of polykatoikía, addressed at the upper classes, were featured in leading architectural journals, introducing a European-influenced modernity that helped shape a new generation of Greek architects.

From strong criticism to reappraisal

The antiparochi system has been much lamented, blamed for the architectural homogenization and even the perceived “ugliness” of Athens – and the rest of Greece’s large urban centers. It should be noted that the absence of state planning of urban development, particularly during the 1960s-1970s, contributed to a lack of urban cohesion, with negative impacts on both aesthetics and the environment.

The houses formerly occupying the sites where uniform concrete apartment blocks would be built were often residential houses of the neoclassical rhythm; neoclassicism was the first architectural style introduced in Athens. Some of the most important buildings of the late 19^th and early 20^th century are still preserved today. However, the vast majority of the less historic ones vanished as a result of the construction boom.

Nostalgia for a time when small streets were lined with quaint houses, and neighbors could sit and chat in backyards full of flower pots, often makes people hostile towards the bleak facades of concrete apartment buildings. However, in their reminiscences, people tend to overlook the fact that many of the older buildings, especially the smaller ones where poorer families resided, were far from what one would call comfortable: the electricity grid was often rudimentary, there was no central heating and often no proper bathrooms – the lavatory was usually an outhouse and people would often bathe in small tubs filled with water from the sink. The then-new apartment buildings didn’t just offer affordable housing, but also a good quality of life.

This attitude is however slowly changing. As journalist Harry van Versendaal points out, the “stereotypical image of the Greek capital as a cluttered concrete jungle, has, in recent years, undergone a reappraisal […] Scholars, architects and urban theorists have increasingly reevaluated the architectural, social and economic significance of these modernist apartment buildings”.

This reevaluation is reflected in various publications and events, such as Goethe Institute’s exhibition Athens’ Polykatoikias 1930-1975: Formation of a Typology; addressing the opening of the exhibition, Myrto Kiourti, an award-winning Athens-based architect, said that, thanks to the values of Modern architecture, “Athens achieved one of Modernism’s main goals: decent housing for all”.

According to British architect, critic and historian Kenneth Frampton, the apartment block in Athens is a unique modern manifestation of urban development, resulting from the spontaneous evolution of society, rather than from planned intervention.

The Athenian polykatoikía has been the subject of the Ioanna Theocharopoulou’s book Builders, Housewives and the Construction of Modern Athens (Onassis Publications, 2022), which offers a critical re-evaluation of the city as a successful adaptation to circumstance, enriching our understanding of urbanism as a truly collective design activity. Theocharopoulou, an architect and architectural historian, re-evaluates the polykatoikía as a low-tech, easily constructible innovation that stimulated the postwar urban economy, triggering the city’s social mid-twentieth-century transformation.

According to her, the process of creating a broader middle class through real estate development contributed to the reduction of the social, ideological and cultural divides of the interwar period, as well as healing the wounds of the civil war.

Inspired by Theocharopoulou’s book, a documentary of the same title has been made by film directors Tassos Langis and Yiannis Gaitanidis. As they stated, they used the book as a starting point and guide as they “delved into the cracks of our modern urban history to trace the internal immigrants who were the ‘co-authors’ of our built environment”.

Builders, Housewives and the Construction of Modern Athens at the Onassis Channel on YouTube:

Athenian modernism once more at the forefront

A different take on the Athenian urban landscape was identified as early as the 2000s. Impressively, Greece's participation in the 2002 Venice Biennale was entitled “Athens 2002: Absolute Realism”. Athenian modernism is once again in the spotlight, but no longer through “official” modernism. It is not the image of a tourist Athens that is showcased, but the anonymous, graffitied, marginal and even “ugly” aspects of the city.

In 2016 the online platform “Social Atlas of Athens” was created with the aim of highlighting and recording the social geography of Athens. The platform, supported by the Onassis Foundation, aims to raise awareness of the key structures and processes shaping the city's social fabric.

Similarly, research at pan-European level has begun to treat Athens' “anonymous” modernity differently. Doctoral theses and research projects at leading institutions in Europe and America (Richard Woditsch, Olga Moatsou, Plato Isaias, Ioanna Theocharopoulou etc.), were now discussing the common and typical Athenian apartment building in terms of an alternative, “marginal” modernity, one that distanced itself from the experience of the developed world.

Theocharopoulou, for example, introduces new conceptual tools to document the particularities of this development, drawing on a number of different sources, which are not limited to the architectural and urban history of Athens but extend to social history, anthropology, gender studies, the evolution of language and the study of shadow theater.

For its advocates, the concept of polykatoikía ultimately embodies the fundamental philosophy of modernist architecture: “Form follows function” - the appearance and structure of a building must be determined first and foremost by its use and purpose. As they point out: “The true beauty of a city lies in the way it is inhabited. Athens is an attractive city. However, it is attractive not because of its beautiful buildings, but because of its attractive way of life.”

N.M. (Partly based on the article “The ‘polykatoikia’ of the 1960s-1970s as an essential element of Athens' “anonymous” modernity” which appeared on Grèce Hebdo)

Read also via Greek News Agenda: The Fourth CIAM Congress of 1933 in Athens and the foundations of Western urbanism; Open House Athens: “Future Heritage: The Architecture of Today, the Heritage of Tomorrow”; Bookshelf: Exploring Greek Architecture

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The Battle of Crete (also referred to as “Battle for Crete”) took place from 20 May until 1 June 1941, between the Allied Forces and the Axis powers; the Greek island of Crete was fiercely defended against the Axis invasion, as part of the German invasion of Greece in World War II. Crete would eventually fall in the hands of the Nazi army – but their heroic resistance of the Greek and Allied soldiers is an enduring symbol of courage and tenacity. Hundreds of soldiers from the UK, Australia and New Zealand remain buried in a cemetery in Crete.

Greece in World War II

Greece entered World War II on 28 October 1940, after Italy’s fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, issued an ultimatum to Greece, demanding free passage for his troops to occupy strategic points in its territory. Greece rejected the ultimatum, declaring war and, a few hours later, the Italian offensive against Greece began. (It should be noted that this date is one of Greece’s two national holidays, known as the “Ohi Day” [The day of “No”].)

The Greek Army successfully repelled the Italian assault, and in fact launched a victorious counteroffensive. Italy’s defeat in the Greco-Italian War compelled its German allies to intervene, starting the invasion of Greece on 6 April 1941 (“Operation Marita”). Grossly outnumbered –despite a small reinforcement from British and Commonwealth forces– the Greek army was unable to fend off the ruthless attack by the combined German and Italian powers, especially given the German air supremacy. Mainland Greece had been conquered by the end of April, with its only free part being the island of Crete in the south.

Operation Mercury

The Crete campaign, led by the Axis powers under the code name “Operation Mercury” (Unternehmen Merkur), began on 20 May 1941. It was of great strategic importance for the Axis to take hold of Crete due to its habours, commanding shipping lanes to the Black Sea and the Middle East, and its airfields.

The British forces had already garrisoned Crete during the Greco-Italian War, as the Royal Navy found its harbours and airfields useful for the war against the Axis. With the British taking over the defense of the island, the Cretan Division was transferred to the Albanian front where it participated in the January–February offensives against the Italians. Only three battalions had remained in Crete; the rest of the air assault brigade was unable to return to Crete following the retreat of the Greek army during Operation Marita.

The British were aware of the German plans for the invasion of Crete thanks to the breaking of Enigma codes. The combined British, Australian and New Zealand forces amounted to about 30,000, under the command of Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg; together with the Greek soldiers, they clearly outnumbered the Germans. However, the latter still had aerial superiority, while the defending forces lacked heavy weapons. The Germans decided to make the most of their advantage, launching an airborne attack with glider and parachute forces.

They did not however expect the ferocious resistance they would encounter not only from the defending soldiers but also from the Cretan civilians. About 9,350 troops landed on the first day, but German casualties were overwhelming. At the Maleme Airfield (in the nothwest), defended by New Zealanders, and the nearby town of Chania, defended by Greek forces, German paratroopers and gliders faced the most severe casualties. Greek resistance was equally fierce at the capital city of Heraklion and the town of Rethymno, in central Crete.

Among the Australian and New Zealand soldiers, many were indigenous people of the Australian continent – most notably the 28th (Māori) Battalion (Te Hokowhitu a Tū), a light infantry battalion of the New Zealand Army, which had previously fought at the Battle of Greece (even fighting at the legendary position of Thermopylae). At the Battle of Crete, they became famous for their bayonet charges against the enemy, letting out fierce Haka war cries.

On the days that followed, the Germans continued their attacks from the air, using paratroopers, and aerial and artillery bombardment; they also launched landing attempts using their war ships, which had to face the British Royal Navy. Italians also had to send reinforcements, who arrived in the last days.

Despite the unparalleled valiance demonstrated by the island’s defending forces, the continued attacks and extensive use of heavy weaponry eventually helped the German army advance and inflict serious damage on the allied forces. The Royal Navy suffered heavy losses and its eastern Mediterranean strength were virtually depleted. On the 26, Lieutenant General Freyberg ordered a general retreat to the south of the island to prepare for evacuation. From 28 May to 1 June, troops were embarked for Egypt; however, thousands of both Commonwealth and Greek troops were still on the island on 1 June, when the island came under German control.

Aftermath

Despite the German’s eventual victory, Operation Mercury, the first invasion in history that took place predominantly using parachute and glider troops, was considered too costly in terms of war casualties, making Germans avoid large-scale airborne operations for the rest of the war. Members of the German armed forces that took part in the Battle of Crete between 20 and 27 May 1941 would later be awarded the Crete Cuff Band: it was the first time that such a military decoration was bestowed as a campaign award.

The Cretan civilians had fought against the enemy with all their strengths usings any means at their disposal – which often meant just farming tools and even kitchen utensils, together with old rifles. As the Nazi army eventually took over the island, multiple civilians were killed, many of them in retaliative mass executions. In total, several thousand Cretan civilians (including women and children) either died fending off the invasion, were killed in the crossfire, or were summarily executed in reprisal for the German casualties. Throughout the Axis occupation of Crete, many locals entered resistance groups; German reprisals for the participation of Cretans in the Resistance often included summary executions and the destruction of entire villages.

Thousands of British Commonwealth and Greek soldiers were also captured by the enemy, while some of the foreign soldiers managed to hide in the mountains and survive for some period thanks to the help of the locals. One notable case was that of Reg Saunders, the first Aboriginal Australian to be commissioned as an officer in the Australian Army: as part of the 2/7^th Infantry Battalion, he fought in the area around Chania; later, taking rearguard actions to allow other units to be evacuated from the island, his own battalion was eventually left behind. He was among the few who evaded captivity, hiding out in the hills and adopting Cretan dress. He remained hidden for eleven months, with the help of the locals, until he was finally evacuated from southern Crete in May 1942, along with other Commonwealth soldiers who had also stayed hidden or had escaped from prison camps.

Today, the graves of many Commonwealth soldiers who lost their lives defending Crete against the Nazi army can be found at the Souda Bay War Cemetery, a military cemetery administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Designed by architect Louis de Soissons, it contains 731 World War II burials where the body was identified along with another 776 burials of bodies which are unable to be identified.

N.M. (Intro image: Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg, command of the Allied forces during the Battle of Crete, gazes over the parapet of his dug-out in the direction of the German advance)

Photographs source (except where noted): Imperial War Museums via picryl © Public Domain

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George Bizos, born on 15 November 1927 in Vasilitsi, near Koroni in Greece, was a Greek-South African human rights lawyer whose life was defined by an unwavering commitment to justice and the fight against oppression. He passed away on 9 September 2020 in Johannesburg, South Africa, at the age of 92. Bizos's journey to South Africa was marked by the turmoil of World War II. In 1941, at the age of thirteen, he and his father fled German-occupied Greece, helping seven allied New Zealand soldiers escape to Crete. Their escape led them to a refugee camp in Alexandria, Egypt, before they eventually arrived in Durban, South Africa, in 1941, after being picked up by a Royal Navy battleship.

In Johannesburg, Bizos pursued a law degree at the University of Witwatersrand (Wits), where he met Nelson Mandela, with whom he would forge a lifelong friendship and professional partnership. At Wits, Bizos became involved in student politics and was elected onto the Students Representative Council. His early political activism led to the denial of his South African citizenship in a letter that described him as ‘not fit and proper to become a South African’. The ban lasted over 30 years. “There comes a time in the life of all people when you either succumb or you fight,” he said of joining the liberation effort. He completed his law degree in 1950 and was admitted to the Johannesburg Bar in 1954.

Bizos dedicated his legal career to fighting for basic human rights, particularly during the apartheid era. He served as an Advocate in Johannesburg, and from 1990, he worked as counsel at the Legal Resources Centre (LRC), one of the biggest and oldest s a human rights organisation based in South Africa, and at the Constitutional Litigation Unit. He acted as defence counsel in numerous high-profile political trials. Bizos dedicated his working life to fight for basic human rights. After the collapse of the Apartheid he turned his fight into ensuring that all South Africans enjoyed those rights enshrined and guaranteed by the democratic constitution.

During the Apartheid (1948 to 1994)

His most notable case was the 1963-64 Rivonia Trial, where he was part of the legal team defending Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and other leaders of the African National Congress (ANC). Facing charges of sabotage, which carried the death penalty, Bizos played a crucial role in potentially saving Mandela's life. During the preparation of Mandela's famous statement from the dock, Bizos advised him to add the words "if needs be" before the phrase "I am prepared to die". Bizos believed this subtle but significant intervention might prevent Mandela from appearing to seek martyrdom and thus avoid a death sentence. Nelson Mandela himself acknowledged Bizos's incisive mind and sympathetic nature in his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, and later described Bizos as having “behaved like a brother” during his incarceration, looking after his family and affairs.

Beyond the Rivonia Trial, Bizos represented numerous other anti-apartheid activists in trials and inquests. These included representing Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, the NUSAS Five, the families of Steve Biko, Chris Hani, Ahmed Timol, and Dr Neil Aggett in inquests into their deaths in detention. At the post-Apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), Bizos represented the families of many victims of apartheid atrocities, opposing amnesty applications by apartheid agents on behalf of the Biko, Hani, Goniwe, Calata, Mkonto, Mhlauli, Slovo, and Schoon families. His work at the TRC aimed to ensure justice for the families of those who died during the liberation struggle.

Transition to Democratic Africa

In the transition to a democratic South Africa, Bizos played a vital role. He became a member of the ANC's Legal and Constitutional Committee in 1990 and advised the negotiating teams at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), participating in the drafting of the Interim Constitution and the Truth and Reconciliation Bill. He led the team that argued against the death penalty and was counsel for the National Assembly in the certification of the Constitution by the Constitutional Court in 1996, a document that enshrined the rights and freedoms of all South Africans. He continued to fight for these rights in post-apartheid South Africa, including representing some of the mine workers’ families at the Marikana Commission of Inquiry in 2012. He also represented Morgan Tsvangirai, the leader of the Zimbabwean opposition, on charges of high treason.

Bizos authored several books reflecting on his life and the struggle for justice, including No One to Blame?: In Pursuit of Justice in South Africa (1998), Odyssey to Freedom (2009), an autobiography, and 65 Years of Friendship (2017), chronicling his relationship with Nelson Mandela.

Throughout his distinguished career, Bizos received numerous honors and awards, including an honorary Doctorate of Law from the University of the Witwatersrand in 1999, the Order for Meritorious Service Class II medal from President Nelson Mandela in the same year, the International Trial Lawyer Prize of the Year in 2001, and the Bernard Simons Memorial Award from the International Bar Association in 2004. He also served as a Judge of the Botswana Court of Appeal from 1985 to 1993.

Τhe 2023 documentary film “Goerge Bizos Icon” chronicles  the life and legacy of George Bizos from his childhood in Greece and South Africa, to his work that was dedicated to the fight against apartheid and advocating for human rights in South Africa and around the world. The documentary, that has been screened in may festivals around the world also portrays George Bizos’ lifelong friendship with Nelson Mandela.

George Bizos was married to Arethe “Rita” Daflos, who passed away in 2017, and they had three sons. His passing in 2020 was met with widespread recognition of his immense contributions to South Africa and the cause of human rights globally.

The legacy of George Bizos is one of unwavering dedication to justice, courage in the face of oppression, and profound humanity. He played a pivotal role in dismantling apartheid and building a democratic South Africa, not only through his legal expertise but also through his deep commitment to the principles of equality and human dignity. His influence as a lawyer, mentor, and advocate continues to inspire those who strive for a just society. The George Bizos SAHETI Scholarship and Bursary Fund and the Arethe Daflos-Bizos Arts Scholarship stand as testaments to his and his wife’s enduring impact. Bizos’s life serves as a powerful reminder of the crucial role lawyers can play in the fight for human rights and the pursuit of justice for all.

I.L. with information from George Bizos | Nelson Mandela Foundation George Bizos obituary| The Guardian; George Bizos | South African Government; George Bizos: A Legacy of Justice and Humanity in South Africa | LRC; Legal giant, legend, friend, family man: A tribute to George Bizos |Mail and Guardian; “Faraway Words” for George Bizos | Voice of Greece; Advocate George Bizos | South African History Online

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