The European Cultural Delphi Centre (E.C.D.C.) a cultural institution in Greece aiming at exploring humanistic thought and promoting dialogue on the pressing questions of our time, has launched in 2023 the international symposium “Delphi Dialogues,” which aims to explore key aspects of humanity’s journey toward its emerging future, and to contribute through concrete proposals and the promotion of global critical thinking.

Renowned thinkers and scientists of global stature gather in Delphi to discuss urgent contemporary issues and challenges that humanity will soon be called upon to face. Now in its third year, and under the auspices of H.E. the President of the Republic,
Mr. Konstantinos An. Tasoulas, Delphi Dialogues 2025 will focus on the theme of Biopolitics, Bioethics, and Democracy.

As noted by Harvard University Professor and President of the European Cultural Centre of Delphi Professor Panagiotis Roilos, the unprecedented developments across many scientific fields — most notably in medicine, biomedical research, genetic engineering, computer science, and physics — as well as in technology (including artificial intelligence), are providing political (and economic) centers of power with highly advanced mechanisms and tools of "biopolitics", i.e., the management, regulation, surveillance, and overall shaping of critical aspects of citizens' lives. He highlights that the Third Delphic Dialogues will explore a series of complex questions arising from this new reality, including:

• How are the principles and priorities of bioethics being redefined as a result of these developments, particularly in medicine and genetic technology?
• To what extent and in what ways can a balance be achieved between the concentration of scientific and technological capital and knowledge in a few research and business entities, on the one hand, and the protection and expansion of democratic ideals and political rights, on the other?
• What threats do these highly complex and advanced biopolitical mechanisms pose to democratic institutions?

The Third Delphi Dialogues with take place between Friday 20 and Saturday 21 June 2025 at Delphi, one of the most emblematic sites of ancient Greek thought, regarded by ancient Greeks as the center of the world. One of the founding mission of the European Cultural Centre of Delphi, is to develop Delphi as a European and global hub of intellectual life.

As Professor Andreas Gofas, Director of the European Cultural Centre of Delphi, states:

“From the very beginning of its operation, the European Cultural Centre of Delphi has served as a beacon of culture and reflection, centered on the human being and Democracy. Today, as the concepts of biopolitics and bioethics return to the forefront with renewed urgency, the Centre emerges as an ideal space for dialogue on the critical questions of our time.

In the 21st century, advances in biotechnology, artificial intelligence, and the life sciences not only affect our daily lives but also raise fundamental questions about the meaning of human existence in the future and society’s responsibility toward human life. Political decisions concerning the body, health, reproduction, and the technological enhancement of the human being define a new arena—one in which ethics, science, and democratic accountability intersect with increasing intensity.

In the deeply historic setting of Delphi—a place long associated with prophecy, wisdom, and deliberation—the convening of the Third Delphic Dialogues offers a unique opportunity for meaningful reflection on how modern technologies and the politics of biopower influence democracy, freedom, and human dignity. Here, where plurality of voices and the synthesis of ideas have always been core values, the conditions are ideal for reexamining the principles we wish to see govern our contemporary civilization.”

Τhe 2025 Delphi Dialogues international symposium will feature a distinguished roster of speakers whose work spans a wide array of disciplines and critical global concerns. Together, they will explore the multifaceted ethical, political, and philosophical dimensions of biopolitics, democracy, and scientific advancement in our rapidly evolving world.

Daniel Wikler (Harvard University) will address the challenges of bioethics in an era of disinformation, probing the ways in which truth, trust, and public health intersect in the digital age.

Frédéric Keck (CNRS – Collège de France) will explore the democratic potential of cynegetic power, drawing lessons in wisdom from the practices and insights of virus hunters.

Elaine Scarry (Harvard University) will present a thought provoking examination titled “Thermonuclear Monarchy: Can a Single Speech Act Destroy All Civilization?”, investigating the concentration of destructive power and its implications for democratic sovereignty.

Michael Hardt (Duke University) will discuss democracy and the global war regime, reflecting on how conflict infrastructures reshape civic life and political agency on a planetary scale.

Demetrios Yatromanolakis (The Johns Hopkins University) will trace the trajectory of biopolitics from Plato’s political pragmatism to post-human cybernetics, illuminating the continuity and disruption in philosophical approaches to life, governance, and technology.

James Faubion (Rice University) will offer insights on antibiopolitics and bioautology, advancing a new conceptual vocabulary for understanding the regulation of life and the self in the contemporary biopolitical landscape.

Didier Fassin (Collège de France) will confront the inequality of lives as an ethical challenge to democracy, interrogating the moral imperatives and failures of institutions that value some lives over others.

Timothy Campbell (Cornell University) will conclude with a reflection on the uses of democracy, proposing a reframing of biopolitics that reclaims democratic potential amid escalating technological control.

The dialogues will officially kick off on Friday, June 20, 2025, at 17:30, in the "Frynichos" Hall of the European Cultural Centre of Delphi and the whole symposium will be streamed live online, allowing global audiences to participate in this vital conversation on biopolitics, democracy, and ethics.

Live Stream: eccd.gr/delphidialogues2025

The symposium proceedings will be published in a dedicated special edition, available after the event.

I.L.

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Hypatia was a brilliant Greek mathematician, astronomer, and Neoplatonist philosopher who lived in Alexandria, Egypt, part of the Eastern Roman Empire at the time. She was born around 355 AD and assassinated in March 415 AD. 

Her work set the basis for modern astronomy. She is the first female mathematician whose life and work was reasonably recorded. She was also a prominent teacher and orator attracting many loyal students and large audiences. Her education and passion for knowledge was cultivated due to her father Theon of Alexandria, a prominent mathematician and philosopher and the last attested member of the Alexandrian Museum.   

Throughout her studies Hypatia critically engaged with the works of Euclid, Archimedes, and Plato, mastering complex mathematical concepts as well as astronomy and ethics that was studied in Athens.

Hypatia became a prominent figure amongst Alexandria’s ruling class, a figure whose teachings and works were met with high regard and respect in Alexandria. It is said that she had counseled Orestes, the Roman prefect of Alexandria, who was embroiled in a personal conflict with Alexandria's bishop, Cyril. Rumors circulated accusing her of preventing Orestes from reconciling with Cyril and, in March 415 AD, she was murdered by a mob of Christians.

Α scholar and philosopher

Ας Hypatia grew older, she became renowned for her eloquence, wisdom, and profound insights into mathematics, astronomy and philosophy. Her lectures at the Neoplatonic School of Alexandria attracted many educated minds, creating a lively and diverse intellectual environment that encouraged academic curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge.  

Her contribution to mathematics and astronomy was equally significant as it laid the groundwork for future advancements in these fields. Her astronomical observations and calculations contributed to a deeper understanding of celestial phenomena, paving the way for the development of modern astronomy.

It is believed that Book III of Theon’s version of Ptolemy’s Almagest—the treatise that established the Earth-centric model for the universe that wouldn’t be overturned until the time of Copernicus and Galileo—was actually the work of Hypatia. Her work is believed to be a refined technique for the long division algorithms required for computation in astronomy.

In Mathematics she wrote a commentary on Diophantus’s thirteen-volume Arithmetica, setting out more than 100 mathematical problems, for which solutions are proposed using algebra. 

Hypatia constructed astrolabes and hydrometers, but did not invent either of these, which were both in use long before she was born. She was tolerant towards Christians and taught many Christian students, including Synesius, the future bishop of Ptolemais. According to a letter from Synesius, Hypatia showed him how to build a silver plane astrolabe, which is a tool for determining the date and time by using the positions of the planets and stars. In a different letter, Synesius asks Hypatia to build him a "hydroscope," which is a tool for figuring out a liquid's specific gravity or density.   

Overall, Hypatia was a Neoplatonist; yet, similar to her father, she accepted Plotinus's original formulation of Neoplatonism rather than Iamblichus's. In fact, during that period, the philosophy of the Alexandrian school was well renowned, and Alexandria was considered the intellectual hub of the Greco-Roman world, second only to Athens.

Enduring legacy and significance

What distinguishes Hypatia as a prominent philosopher is not only her intellectual brilliance but also her defiance of societal norms that sought to confine women to domestic roles. During a time where women were expected to be housewives and mothers, Hypatia showed that female education should be encouraged. Hypatia’s pursuit of knowledge and great achievements challenged gender stereotypes, making her legacy all the more significant. 

Hypatia was and continues to be a source of inspiration for many intellectuals, writers, and artists. Charles Kingsley labeled her as "the last of the Hellenes" in his novel Hypatia, published in 1853. Kingsley's book was swiftly turned into a wide range of theatrical productions and produced visual art, such as an 1885 painting by Charles William Mitchell and an 1867 portrait by pioneering photographer Julia Margaret Cameron that showed Hypatia as a young lady.

Moreover, Elbert Hubbard, an American writer, purportedly wrote a biography of Hypatia in his series published in 1908. Hypatia was taken up by feminists during the same period, and the women's rights movement started to influence how people saw her life and death. Agora, a 2009 film directed by Alejandro Amenábar, starring Rachel Weisz as Hypatia, refers to the latter years of Hypatia in a highly dramatized way.

Today, as we commemorate the life and legacy of Hypatia, we are reminded of the enduring relevance of her ideals. In honoring Hypatia, we pay tribute to the enduring legacy of Greek intellect and the timeless pursuit of knowledge that continues to enrich our lives and illuminate the path to a brighter future.

Anna-Maria Papadopoulos (This is an article taken from Greece In America, the official newsletter of the Embassy of Greece in Washington. Intro image: Fictional portrait of Hypatia by Jules Maurice Gaspard)

Read also via Greek News Agenda: Beyond Socrates – Greek philosophers you might not know

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Jani Christou (Greek:Γιάννης Χρήστου, 9 January 1926 – 8 January 1970) was a Greek avant-garde composer and thinker of music; he was among the most exciting and provocative figures of the twentieth century avant-garde, introducing a body of work of rigorous consistency that integrates philosophical notions and music. His contribution to the sonic world goes beyond the strictly musical innovation in terms of techniques and style. Having been educated under philosophers rather than musicians, Christou manifested a unique attitude towards art, ritualizing musical interpretation and interconnecting music, gesture, movement and choreography in his later works. Incorporating philosophical concepts in modern musical composition, he used musical instruments, vocal, tape sounds, visual effects, and body activity of the performers to produce compositions that grappled with timeless questions.

Although he was only 44 when he died, he is regarded as one of the leading composers of his generation. He was controversial, highly talented, and  he is to this day greatly respected in contemporary music circles, both in Greece and abroad. However, current performances of his music are extremely rare and he remains a “great stranger” for the wider public.

As we read in his mini biography by Michael Sterwart, The life and works of Jani Christou: "he was born in Heliopolis, Egypt, to Eleutherios Christou, a Greek industrialist and chocolate manufacturer and Lilika Tavernari, of Cypriot origin and was educated at the English School in Alexandria. He began composing at an early age and the important Greek pianist Gina Bachauer was among his first teachers.

In 1945 he travelled to England to study formal logic and philosophy at King’s College, Cambridge, under Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell. He attained an MA in philosophy, while at the same time he studied music privately with Hans Redlich, the distinguished musicologist and pupil of Alban Berg. In 1949 Christou travelled to Rome, to study orchestration with Angelo Francesco Lavagnino.

He also travelled widely in Europe, culminating for a short period in Zurich, where he met and attended lectures in psychology with Carl Jung. Christou's studies in psychology were greatly encouraged by his brother Evanghelos – himself a pupil of Jung – whom Christou considered his spiritual mentor and who exerted a strong influence on his creative thinking. Christou was deeply affected by his brother's death in 1956 as the result of a car accident, and it was Jani who arranged the posthumous publication of Evanghelos's book The Logos of the Soul.

He returned to Alexandria in 1951, and in 1956 he married Theresia Horemi, a remarkable young painter from Chios who supported and assisted Christou in all his artistic and creative aspirations. Christou would compose for long hours at a stretch, and when not actually physically engaged in the act of composing would spend a great deal of time studying in his vast library of books and absorbing subjects from philosophy, anthropology, psychology, theology and comparative religions, history and pre-history through to occultism and art.

Christou was as much a philosopher and metaphysician as he was a composer and it is important to understand that all of his music sprang from his philosophical studies and theories. This is particularly so in the music covering the last ten years of his life, where his compositional techniques are at times transmuted beyond conventional music. In a series of 130 Projects (described by musicologist John Papaioannou as metamusical-ritual works) Christou extends musical syntax to such a degree that the boundaries between music, theatre, choreography and everyday 'life', merge, coexist and sometimes become mutually independent one from the other: Anaparastasis III (The Pianist) for actor and instrumental ensemble and tapes (1968); Anaparastasis I, for baritone and instrumental ensemble (1968) and Enantiodromia are prime examples of this genre of Christou's late music.

Jani Christou died on or the day before his 44th birthday in a car accident a few kilometers outside Athens, Greece; that day the contemporary music world lost one of its most exciting and provocative talents. At the time of his death, his music was being heard at some of the most prestigious international music festivals in the world, and he was also preparing to unveil the most ambitious project of his career - a large scale contemporary opera based on Aeschylus's Oresteia (1967-70).

His untimely death left many projects incomplete, including the Oresteia which would have received its world premiere at the English Bach Festival in London in April 1970, with further performances scheduled for France, Japan, America and Scandinavia. This large scale contemporary opera, a massive stage ritual based on the text by Aeschylus, for actors, singers, dancers, chorus, orchestra, tape and visual effects (in which several of the Anaparastasis of the fifth period would have certainly been incorporated), would have served as a grand summation of Christou's life's work".

The Jani Christou Archive at the Athens Conservatoire

The archive of this great avant-garde composer and thinker of music was transferred to the Athens Conservatoire in 2023 after a donation from his descendants, and is housed at the Athens Conservatoire Centre for Research and Documentation (KETOA).

The Janni Christou Archive will serve an extremely valuable resource for musicologists, researchers, performers, musicians and researchers from a wide field of arts and sciences. It is comprised of:

• More than 1500 manuscripts: notes, typescripts, drafts, ideas (the composer's famous "stimulating ideas"), work diaries, handwritten librettos, philosophical thoughts, notes on his unfinished projects and the Oresteia, but also on the process of creating all his well-known projects, from conception to execution.
• Over 350 different documents of sheet music: full scores, parts, drafts, corrections, prepress proofs, slides and correspondence consisting of 600 letters.
• Approximately 900 press clippings (articles, reviews, interviews, etc.) – most of which were collected and archived by the composer himself – photographs, concert programs from 1950 to the present day, and is supplemented with graduate theses, doctoral theses , academic publications, tributes and publications.
• Finally, the Archive contains all the tapes from the composer's personal studio, with material from recordings of performances to electronic sounds, and from theatrical rehearsals and performances to hand-made loops and interviews.

The Jani Christou Archive has already been digitized by Athens Conservatoire Centre for Research and Documentation (KETOA) and will be available to researchers, musicians and anyone interested, with the aim is to showcase and spread knowledge of the work and thought of this rare musical personality.

I.L.

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Aylon Lyceum is a new cultural space which opens its gates to the public in November; its first exhibition, "Democracy and Eudemonia", invites visitors to explore Greek philosophical thinking and the ways to live well in a state, through an interactive experience where each exhibit is also a challenge.

The cultural center is housed in the imposing building of the Athens Conservatoire, in the heart of Athens, next to the archeological site of Aristotle’s Lyceum. Its official opening took place on Monday, October 30, by the Minister of Culture and Sports, Lina Mendoni.

Aylon Lyceum is a collaboration between the Ministry of Culture and Sports and the National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos", the largest multidisciplinary Research Centre in Greece; it was the result of the project "DESIGN, ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION OF THE HOUSE OF CLASSICAL GREEK IDEAS" co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) of the European Union and national resources through the Operational Programme Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship & Innovation (EPAnEK) 2014 – 2020.

The center’s name is inspired by Aristotle’s Lyceum, that is, a school founded by the famed ancient philosopher Aristotle, where he gave lectures based on his philosophy and his systematic examination of the natural world. "Aylon" refers to the Greek adjective aylos, meaning "immaterial, intangible", in reference to the nature of ideas, but also on the use of new technologies, which encourage reflection and dialogue, just as Aristotle’s Lyceum did in ancient Athens.

Aylon Lyceum fosters technology-driven cultural experiences on ancient Greek philosophy and invites guests to reflect on time-old questions. Its mission is to advance philosophical thinking in everyday-life and raise awareness on contemporary techno-ethical issues, developing experiences that broaden the visitors’ understanding of ancient Greek ideas through exhibitions using cutting-edge technologies.

The Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications of NCSR Demokritos, responsible for the development of the Aylon Lyceum, coordinates various projects and participates in the creation of innovative applications by using cutting-edge technologies such as content management, human-computer interaction, audio analysis and music information retrieval.

Speaking to ANA-MPA, Deputy Minister of Culture Christos Dimas said that "Aylon Lyceum connects the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers with new technologies in a natural space, offering a unique interactive experience".

The space’s first exhibition, themed Democracy and Eudemonia (Eudemonia or Eudaimonia is a term deriving from the works of Aristotle, meaning "happiness" of "welfare") seeks to answer the question: How can we live well? The exhibition, designed as a group philosophical experience, invites visitors to explore the relationship of democracy to happiness. Each exhibit is a challenge, an opportunity for reflection and dialogue.

As stated by the Deputy Minister of Culture, "the exhibition's mission is to transform intangible ideas into a digital experience, contributing to the broadening of visitors' relationship with philosophy, to the understanding of ancient Greek ideas and mythology, but also to the assimilation of philosophical thought in our daily life".

Parallel to the main exhibition, and using the same exhibits, the center also organizes a second exhibition, The Dilemma of the Ring, specially designed for students of the 5th and 6th grade of elementary school. School visits to the exhibition take place through a specially designed educational program that aiming to help children approach the ideas of ancient Greek philosophy. The main theme of the program is the Ring of Gyges, the famous myth found in Plato’s Republic, which highlights moral dilemmas. Through interaction with the digital exhibits, the students are encouraged to engage in philosophical contemplation.

The exhibitions will run from November 14 through December 15, 2023. All exhibits also use subtitles in Greek and in English for the hearing impaired. The space is accessible for people with disabilities.

Image sources: Aylon Lyceum’s official site & official Facebook page

Read also via Greek News Agenda: Meet "Demokritos" the biggest Research Centre of Greece; Dr. Androula Nassiopoulou on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Greece; A Tribute to Plato

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Sigmund Freud was already “a man of mature years” when he travelled to Athens for the first and last time in 1904, accompanied by his younger brother, Alexander. Greek history and mythology deeply inspired him since childhood, but the trip was the result of unexpected changes to his travel plans that year.  

Located on a limestone hill high above the city, the Acropolis of Athens in Greece is one of the most important archaeological sites in the world. Over time, the site has been a fortress, a religious centre and a major cultural monument strongly associated with ideas of beauty and eternity.  

When Freud reached the top of the Acropolis hill, gazing toward the sea, he experienced a feeling of astonishment and disbelief that puzzled him for decades. In 1936, he wrote about his experience in an open letter to French author Romain Rolland – the text, titled ‘A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis’ is now considered a key point of reference.  

The exhibition Tracing  Freud on the Acropolis opened on July 26, 2023 and will run until 7 January 2024 at Freud Museum London bringing together archives, images and objects exploring Freud’s journey to Greece, and his encounter with the Acropolis.  This exhibition is organized with the kind support of the Acropolis Museum, the Hellenic Society for Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Group Psychotherapy and the Institute for Digital Archaeology.

The exhibition’s curator, Marina Maniadaki, writes for the Athens News Agency, exploring the father of psychoanalysis’ relation to the Acropolis and to ancient Greek thought*:

Autumn of 1904: In Athens, September has arrived warm and civil engineer Nikolaos Balanos is carrying out extensive restoration work on the Acropolis; recently a systematic excavation revealed the sacred rock’s stunning antiquities. Scores of famous people from the all over the world flock to Greece to admire its monuments.

In the morning of September 4, a middle-aged man climbs the rock slowly, almost piously. Despite the posture of his body, which shows impatience to reach the top, his steps are steady and every now and then he raises his head to see what is being revealed to him. Another man, obviously younger, is walking with him. It is his brother, Alexander, ten years younger than him. "For this visit to the sacred rock I wore my good shirt" the Austrian neurologist-psychiatrist Sigmund Freud will later confess to his wife, talking about fulfilling of one of his life's dreams. He visits the brilliant exemplar of ancient Greece, from which he borrowed the core of his scientific theory. The methodology of psychoanalysis like that of archaeology, you dig into the past to interpret the future, according to Freud’s definition of the technique, which he himself has invented. In fact, in his work "The Etiology of Hysteria", he will articulate that "just as archaeologists discover hidden ruins, so the psychoanalyst can excavate a person's past, conducting an archaeological investigation of the mind".

History will show that Freud's relationship with Greece and Greek thought is deep and multidimensional. He himself knows about ancient Greece from the texts of ancient Greek literature and through his contact with the cultural currents of the West. His psychoanalytic theory stems from this relationship.

As a Jew, he is proud of his Judaism because he belongs to the people who gave the Bible to the world, but he renounces dogma and religion, which allows him be open to different cultures and theories. He passionately searches for and studies the sources that reveal the roots of ancient civilizations. His office in Vienna is full of finds, mainly from excavations in Egypt and Greece. His collection includes about 2,500 thousand pieces, among which several phallic symbols from Pompeii. His inspiration, however, as he says in his circle, is a bust of the tragic Sophocles, the "father" of the legendary Oedipus.

Freud, looking for answers on human sexuality, believes that it can be better understood through myths, because they are closer to the unconscious. Myths, he says, can describe things unknown to the person about themselves. Every myth is a focal point around which many of our fantasies and desires are woven; what is more, a myth acts as a carrier of elements of collective memory. But every myth also has a dark side, which can be explored by the psychoanalytic process. This process does not just investigate the obvious elements of the myth, but also delves into in the latent and its relationship with the obvious. For Freud, who persistently and devotedly studies ancient Greek literature, the ideal reservoir from which to draw myths is that of ancient Greek tradition.

According to the interpretation of the late doctor of Philosophy, fellow at the International Council of Psychologists and founder of the Hellenic Center for Mental Hygiene and Research, Anna Potamianou: "Freud, by selecting the ancient Greek myths of Narcissus and Oedipus, in fact suggests to us some forms, which organize our mental life. With […] the help of Narcissus, who let himself die admiring his image, he presents us with two courses that we could follow in life. One is to move slowly through ourselves into relationships of recognition with the other, of the different, and to finally arrive at the recognition of our own diversity, our sexuality, etc. The other course is to burn the bridges with the outside world and concern ourselves only with ourselves, denying and distancing ourselves from external reality, thus falling pray to this internal self-destructive drive, that Freud calls the ‘death drive’”.

A far as the myth of Oedipus is concerned, Freud chooses it as a form through which to demonstrate that ultimately, the human psyche needs certain fundamental representations that provide the concept of the difference between generations, the sexes, and how the law works - or does not work - in relation to hubris.

Of course, the scientist's relationship with the ancient Greek imprint is not limited to the two emblematic figures of Greek mythology (Narcissus and Oedipus), which he borrows to establish his theory. He has long been studying the basic question of the ancient Ionian philosophers: how the world arose from the universe, that is, how we came from chaos to a world organized with law and order. On this same question he will base his scientific conception of the birth of beings: how a child starts from the point, when it does not distinguish between the “I" (that is, what we call our consciousness of ourselves) and the "non-I" (i.e. the rest of the world), to differentiate between the twο, having in the meantime internalized certain values from its identification with parents and other persons in its environment.

“By the evidence of my senses I am now standing on the Acropolis, but I cannot believe it”

Sigmund Freud, 1936

His awe for the thought of the ancient Greeks and his admiration for their achievements keep him constantly connected to the place, which he has not yet been able to visit. Until the fall of 1904, that is, when he has lived 48 years of his life. This September, finally, here on the Acropolis, he will live an experience, which he will "dare" to describe only 32 years later in a text entitled "‘A Disturbance of Memory on the Acropolis". The text will be addressed to the French essayist and art historian Romain Rolland and will be included in an honor volume for his 70th birthday. As Freud himself tries to explain to his French friend, that visit to the Acropolis made him experience a passing hallucination or perhaps a dream, a "strange and as of yet inexplicable split personality." At the beginning he will monologue "so, all this does exist, just as we learned in school!" and later he won't believe his senses... "by the evidence of my senses I am now standing on the Acropolis, but I cannot believe it” . In the end he exclaims "no, what I see here is not real!"

"Attributing decisive importance to the event of 1904, which haunted him for years, Freud in 1936, perceives it mainly as a conflict between presence and absence" is the interpretation of  Ilias Papagiannopoulos, adjunct professor of Political Philosophy at the University of  Piraeus and writer of the book “Froyd the the Acropolis. An a-topography” (2019, in Greek).

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Born around 2450 years ago in Athens to a prominent family, Plato—originally named Aristocles—would go on to become one of ancient Greece's most influential thinkers. His encounter with Socrates at the age of 20 was a transformative moment, shaping his intellectual journey profoundly. In 388 BC, after a formative trip to Sicily, he founded the renowned Platonic Academy, often considered the first university in the world. Among its students was Aristotle, who subsequently became the esteemed tutor of Alexander the Great. Plato’s dialogues, the primary medium for his writings, exemplify his pursuit of wisdom and understanding. In a time when philosophy was more about seeking wisdom than establishing dogmas or factual certainties, Plato’s ideas hold enduring significance. We will try to explore Plato’s philosophies and their implications on contemporary global affairs, shedding light on how the love of wisdom can offer insights into navigating the complexities of our interconnected world.

Plato’s "The Cave"

Plato’s allegory of "The Cave," found in Book VII of his seminal work The Republic, is an exploration of human perception and the quest for true knowledge. Like all of his works, it takes the form of a dialogue with this being between Socrates and Plato’s brother, Glaucon. In this allegory, Plato presents a vivid scene where prisoners are confined to a dark cave since birth; their legs and necks bound, they are only able to see shadows cast on the cave wall by a fire behind them. Unaware of the outside world, the prisoners mistake these shadows for reality and consider them the only truth. However, when one of the prisoners is freed and forced to venture outside, he encounters the blinding light of the sun, symbolizing the world of true knowledge. Initially overwhelmed, the liberated prisoner gradually grasps the profound insights of the real world.

Upon the prisoner's return to the cave, eager to share his newfound understanding of the outside world, he finds himself met with skepticism and ridicule from the other prisoners. They are reluctant to believe in a reality beyond the familiar shadows they have grown accustomed to and dismiss his revelations as mere fantasies. The prisoner's struggle to convey his experiences highlights the resistance to change and the difficulty of accepting profound truths that challenge established beliefs. Plato's allegory marks the philosopher's gradual path to knowledge. It serves as a poignant commentary on the human condition, illustrating the reluctance of many to embrace knowledge and enlightenment, preferring the comfort of ignorance and the familiar confines of their perceived reality. It underscores the importance of critical thinking, open-mindedness, and the willingness to question conventional wisdom in the pursuit of genuine knowledge and enlightenment.

Plato’s Virtue

Central to Plato's philosophy was the idea that Virtue is not innate but could be cultivated through knowledge and education. According to Plato, everyone is born virtuous. The distinction between a virtuous individual and an unvirtuous one, according to Plato, lies not in their desire for what they perceive as good, as both seek goodness. Rather, it is predicated on their understanding of what genuinely constitutes the good. Virtue, in this context, becomes intricately linked to knowledge, while evil is rooted in ignorance. Plato contends that virtue extends beyond mere moral goodness and encompasses excellence in every facet of life: actions, thoughts, and intentions. Consequently, virtuous conduct emerges from a profound grasp of the true essence of goodness, while evil actions are borne out of a lack of genuine understanding.

In The Republic, Plato expounds upon the four cardinal virtues, which occupy a central position in his ethical theory and underpin both individual moral character and a just society. These cardinal virtues consist of Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, and Justice. Each virtue plays a distinct and vital role in shaping human conduct and fostering the harmony and integrity of a well-ordered community. Plato’s exposition of these virtues serves as a framework for understanding the essence of ethical excellence and the path to a virtuous and equitable society. 

Plato accords Wisdom (Sophia) the status of the supreme virtue, as it encompasses the capacity to pursue and grasp truth while using knowledge in a just and beneficial way. For Plato, wisdom surpasses mere intellectual expertise; it entails a profound comprehension of the world and the faculty to discern between good and evil, right and wrong. Philosophers, in Plato's view, exemplify wisdom, as they devote their lives to the pursuit of knowledge and the contemplation of eternal truths. By celebrating wisdom as the pinnacle virtue, Plato underscores the significance of rational inquiry and moral discernment in cultivating virtuous individuals and fostering a harmonious society rooted in profound understanding and ethical wisdom.

Courage (Andreia) represents the virtue of bravery and unwavering resolve when confronted with fear, danger, or adversity. Plato emphasizes that courage does not entail the absence of fear but rather the ability to confront it and act virtuously in challenging circumstances. Significantly, courage is intricately linked to the preservation of the entire city or society, as individuals possessing this virtue are willing to safeguard the community's well-being, even at the risk of personal harm. In Plato's vision of the ideal state, courage finds its embodiment in the guardians—the ruling class—who exemplify unwavering bravery by defending the city and upholding its fundamental principles with steadfastness. Through the cultivation and celebration of courage, Plato stresses the value of fortitude and resilience in establishing a just and harmonious society, safeguarded by individuals committed to the collective welfare.

Temperance (Sophrosyne), synonymous with self-control or moderation, is the virtue of mastering one's desires and emotions. Plato argues that the human soul has three parts: reason (logistikon), spirit (thymoides), and appetite (epithumitikon). Temperance arises when reason assumes governance and harmonizes the other two parts. It entails exercising control over bodily desires and impulses to attain inner equilibrium and harmony. Plato regards this virtue as crucial for an individual to achieve a well-ordered soul and contribute to the establishment of a just society, underscoring the importance of self-discipline and balanced behavior.

Justice (Dikaiosyne) occupies a paramount position in Plato's ethical framework, serving as the cornerstone upon which the other three virtues rest. It is the virtue of granting each individual their rightful due, upholding principles of fairness, truth, and righteousness: a just society materializes when each person fulfills their role in accordance with their innate abilities and talents. In this ideal city-state, Plato proposes a tripartite division of labor, with philosophers as rulers, warriors as defenders, and producers as the working class. Each class is expected to act justly and fulfill their societal duties for the city to function harmoniously. Plato posits that a just individual is one whose reason governs over their spirit and appetites, fostering a well-balanced soul. In The Republic, the political notion of Justice corresponds to the harmonious balance of the three classes (philosophers, warriors and producers), while the moral notion to Justice corresponds to the balance of the three parts of the human soul.

Plato’s Republic

Rooted in a series of dialogues involving Socrates and his interlocutors, Plato’s Republic centers on the pursuit of justice and the establishment of an ideal state governed by philosopher-kings (king here means ruler not monarch). Key among its themes is the allegory of "The Cave. " Plato contends that the majority of individuals reside in a state of ignorance, akin to the prisoners confined within a dark cave, perceiving mere shadows of truth. True wisdom, he posits, emerges through philosophical contemplation, transcending the illusory realm of sensory experiences to ascend to the higher plane of abstract Forms.

In the process of constructing an ideal city-state, Plato introduces a tripartite division of the soul, comprising: logistikon (reason), thymoeides (spirit), and epithymetikon (desire). This conceptual framework elucidates the nature of justice within the individual, emphasizing the necessity of achieving internal harmony by allowing reason to govern over the other elements. This concept of a harmonious soul parallels the harmonious organization of the ideal city-state, wherein distinct classes—rulers, auxiliaries (the protective class), and producers (the working class)—are assigned specific roles to cultivate social harmony and the collective good.

Integral to Plato’s vision of the ideal state is the concept of philosopher-kings, who possess true wisdom and virtue. They serve as the enlightened rulers, leading the city with a profound understanding of the Forms and a commitment to the pursuit of the greater good. The rulers are individuals possessing knowledge, expertise, administrative abilities, and moral uprightness.

Plato further explores the critical role of education in shaping virtuous citizens. He proposes a system of early moral and intellectual training, advocating for children to be raised collectively by the state. He explains how good art can lead to the formation of good character and make people more likely to follow their reason. Physical education should be geared to benefit the soul rather than the body, since the body necessarily benefits when the soul is in a good condition.

Notably, the Republic also scrutinizes different forms of governance, categorized into five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. Through this analysis, Plato highlights the inherent vulnerabilities and strengths of various political systems. He ultimately contends that the most stable and just state is one guided by the philosopher-kings, wherein the pursuit of wisdom and reason shapes the city’s ethos.

Plato's aspiration was to create an ideal society based on the principle of specialization, where individuals would excel in specific fields according to their merits.

Ultimately, Plato’s Republic presents a philosophical exploration of justice, knowledge, governance, education, and the human soul. Richly woven together through dialogues and allegorical narratives, this seminal work continues to captivate scholars and philosophers alike, provoking ongoing contemplation and discourse on the enduring questions of human existence and the ideal society.

This is an article taken from Greece In America, the official newsletter of the Embassy of Greece in Washington. (Intro photo: Statue of Plato at the Academy of Athens [by Edgar Serrano via World History Encyclopedia])

Read also via Greek News Agenda: Beyond Socrates – Greek philosophers you might not know; Plato’s Academy today; Cornelius Castoriadis, thinker of autonomy; Common words you (probably) didn’t know were Greek – Part 4

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