On “Ohi Day”, meaning “Day of ‘No’”, celebrated on October 28, we commemorate Greece’s defiant rejection of a fascist ultimatum during World War II, and the heroic counteroffensive against the subsequent Italian invasion of Greece.
The public holiday is Greece’s second national day – the first one being of course the Celebration of the Greek people’s insurgence against the Ottoman Empire on March 25, 1821, which marked the beginning of the Greek War of Independence that led to the establishment of the Modern Greek state.
Historical background – Italy in the interwar period
In the First World War, Italy was on the side of the Allies (or Entente) – that is, the victors. Italy had entered the alliance under promises of Italian territorial expansion against Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, and of enlargement of its African colonies. However, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles left Italians gravely disappointed, regarding the results of their involvement in the “Great War” as a “mutilated victory”.
Hence, public sentiment in the country was negative, and this social turmoil was a decisive factor in the rise to power of Benito Mussolini and the National Fascist Party. Thanks to his propaganda, which focused on Italian irredentism and nationalism, and called for the expansion of Italy’s borders, Mussolini gained a great following. His militia organized the March on Rome in 1922, at which point he assumed office as Prime Minister, and remained the country’s dictator until his overthrow in 1943.
As could be expected, when Adolf Hitler came into power in Germany, the two fascist, militaristic, and expansionist regimes soon found common cause. In 1936, the Rome–Berlin Axis was proclaimed, while in 1939 the two countries signed the Pact of Steel, a formal military alliance committing each to support the other in war. Germany started World War II on September 1, 1939, by invading Poland, while Italy entered on 10 June 1940, after France was nearly defeated, hoping to share in the spoils of German victories.
Historical background – Greece in the interwar period
Greece had followed its own tumultuous path in the interwar period. Having been greatly divided over the prospect of its involvement in the Great War, it finally entered on the side of the Allies, succeeding in substantial gains. Yet, the country faced a harsh defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, reversing part of its territorial gains. The subsequent migratory influx from Asia Minor and economic difficulties lead to political instability with successive military coups.
This political turmoil along with the purported communist threat led to a coup by Ioannis Metaxas, who established a right-wing dictatorship in 1936, becoming Greece’s Prime Minister, with the support of the King. There were however tensions between the two, with the King harboring strong pro-British sentiment, while Metaxas had pro-German feelings, in part due to his studies at the Berlin War Academy.
At the start of WWII, Greece tried to stay neutral, maintaining trade with both Axis and Allied countries. Greek ports and islands were useful for British naval operations in the eastern Mediterranean — something Mussolini saw as a threat. Greece forged closer ties with the UK, which granted a territorial guarantee to Greece against any Italian attack, while at the same time trying to maintain good relations with the Axis powers, especially Italy.
By late 1940, Nazi Germany had conquered most of Western Europe. Mussolini, eager not to be overshadowed, wanted quick territorial gains of his own — especially in the Balkans and North Africa. Italy had already occupied Albania (April 1939) and Libya. From there, Mussolini dreamed of creating an Italian-dominated Mediterranean. Greece’s strategic location between the Balkans, the Aegean, and the Eastern Mediterranean made it an obvious target for the Fascist government, who aimed was to establish a Greek puppet state.
Signs of Italian aggression
Even before officially entering the war, Italy shown signs of aggression, with Italian divisions in Albania even moving towards the Greek border at some point. Metaxas had ordered Greek forces to a state of readiness, but still remained staunch in his efforts to maintain neutrality and god relations with Italy.
However, Italy accused Greece of secretly aiding the British (for example, allowing Royal Navy ships to refuel or shelter in Greek waters), using this as a pretext for its anti-Greek propaganda. An invasion seemed imminent, especially since Italy orchestrated border provocations and even repeatedly attacking Greek naval vessels and warships.
In the most striking of those instances, the Greek light cruiser Elli was sunk by the Italian submarine Delfino while harboring in the island of Tinos. The attack in fact took place on August 15, 1940, during the Feast of the Dormition of Virgin Mary, an important religious holiday for Greeks, celebrated with special solemnity in Tinos. Despite evidence of Italian responsibility, the Greek government attributed the attack to a submarine of unknown nationality – without however managing to prevent widespread anti-Italian sentiment in Greece.
The original Ohi Day
In the early hours of 28 October 1940, at around 3:00 a.m., the Italian ambassador to Greece, Emanuele Grazzi, arrived unannounced at the home of Greek Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas in the suburb of Kifisia in Athens. He handed Metaxas a written ultimatum from Mussolini, which demanded that Greece allow Italian forces to enter Greek territory in order to occupy strategic sites, such as ports, airfields, and communication centers, without any resistance, in order to give Italy control of Greece’s military and logistical infrastructure.
The ultimatum implied that failure to comply would mean war, and Metaxas was given only three hours to respond. The text of the ultimatum accused Greece of favoring the Allies and claimed Italy needed to ensure its own security in the Balkans.
After reading the ultimatum, Metaxas calmly replied to the Italian ambassador in French (the diplomatic language of the time): “Alors, c’est la guerre (So, this is war)” – which means that the famous “No” was never uttered as such. However, this one-word answer was immediately used in the headlines of Greek Press at the time, to encapsulate Greece’s refusal to agree to the terms of Mussolini. Greece hence became the first country to oppose fascist Italy in its expansionist campaign – and would soon also become the first to defeat it in the field of battle.
The Greco–Italian War
Just a few hours following the rejection of the ultimatum, at 5:30 a.m., Italian forces trespassed Greece’s borders with Albania (a puppet state of Italy at the time), marking the start of the Greco–Italian War. Mussolini expected this to be an easy victory for his country. However, despite being outnumbered and under-equipped, the Greek army launched an impressive counter-attack.
With the onset of the Italian offensive, Papagos, until then the Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff, was appointed commander-in-chief of the newly established General Headquarters. During the first few days, Italians prepared their assault, bombarding the Greek positions with aircraft and artillery.
In the first days of the war, Italians attacked through Epirus and the Pindus mountains, aiming for Ioannina; their progress was slow, partly owed to the harsh weather conditions. Greek counterattacks quickly stopped the Italian advance, and pushed the invading forces back, deep into Albanian territory. By December 1940, the Greek Army had captured Albanian towns that had served as Italian bases (Korçë, Gjirokastër, and Himara). The front stabilized in early 1941 due to winter and exhaustion, but Greece had clearly won the campaign militarily.
The Greek counteroffensive was the first Allied land victory of World War II, and it stunned both Mussolini and Hitler. The success of the Greek troops was owed not only to an intimate understanding of local geography – particularly the rugged terrain of Epirus and the Pindus Mountains; it was also the result of careful preparation and strategic planning.
Greece’s dictator, Ioannis Metaxas, had a past as a career officer; his authoritarian regime was stifling to the free-thinking people – nevertheless, his military background proved helpful under those dire circumstances. Already at the time when he assumed power in 1936, one of his priorities was rearming and modernizing the Greek military, foreseeing possible external threats. From the moment of the Italian invasion, mobilization was swift and disciplined, as the General Staff had prepared detailed contingency plans.
As far as equipment goes, Greece was of course still direly lacking compared to Italy: Army weapons were a mix of older and newer models — some dating from World War I, others purchased from France, Britain, and Czechoslovakia in the 1930s. The country lacked heavy armor and air power, with only a few light vehicles against Italy’s tanks, while there was also a shortage of military aircraft compared to Italy.
However, these shortages were counterbalanced by the army’s military training and the advantages offered by the Epirus and Western Macedonia mountainous terrain, which favored defensive warfare. Greek troops, especially local men, knew the terrain intimately, while Italian armored units and heavy artillery struggled on narrow, muddy mountain roads. Civilian populations in the region provided priceless logistical support, shelter, and information — turning the invasion into a national, collective defense.
Greece’s resistance became a symbol of courage, national pride and defiance against the Axis powers, leading the foreign Press to laud the Greek Army’s heroic stance, and even helping to raise the profile of the small nation abroad.
Aftermath
Italy’s defeat in the Greco-Italian War became a major embarrassment for Mussolini, compelling its German allies to intervene and secure its southern flank, invading Greece through Bulgaria on 6 April 1941 (“Operation Marita”).
Initially, thanks to the strong fortifications organized on the Bulgarian front (known as “Metaxas Line”) the Greek army was able to hold back the Nazi invasion. However, the Germans had simultaneously began the invasion of Yugoslavia. From there, they launched another attack, hence bypassing the Metaxas Line, and soon captured Thessaloniki.
Grossly outnumbered –despite a small reinforcement from British and Commonwealth forces– the Greek army, already was unable to fend off the advancement of the combined German and Italian powers, especially given the German air supremacy. Mainland Greece was conquered by the end of April, while Crete followed soon, despite the fierce allied resistance on the island.
Greece thus entered the harsh period of the Axis occupation, which -partly as a reprisal for the humiliation of the Fascist army, and for the subsequent actions of the Greek resistance movements- was particularly oppressive for the local population. Several mass executions took place during this period, while in the largest cities hundreds of thousands died due to mass starvation (known as the Great Famine) caused by large-scale plunder and requisitions, the destruction of the country’s infrastructure, and the Allied naval blockade of Greece. The country would finally be liberated in the fall of 1944.
Celebration of Ohi Day
Ohi Day -sometimes transliterated as Oxi Day, and also known in Greece as “the Anniversary of ‘No’” or “Anniversary of October 28”- is one of the two national days of Greece (the first one being the declaration of the Greek War of Independence which led to the birth of the modern state of Greece). It’s a national public holiday, with schools and the entire public sector closed for the day, while the vast majority of businesses also do not function (usually with the exception of some cafés, restaurants and confectionery shops).
Just like the anniversary of the Greek Revolution (celebrated of March 25, which is also the day of the religious Feast of the Annunciation), Ohi Day is celebrated with great pomp; public buildings and central streets are decorated with Greek flags, and student parades held across Greece. A military parade also takes place – not in Athens, as is the tradition on March 25, but instead in Thessaloniki, to honor the anniversary of the city’s liberation from the Ottoman Empire on O.S. October 27-28 (November 9-10), 1912, as part of the First Balkan War.
Read also via Greek News Agenda: The Battle of Crete; Museum of the victims of Nazism in Distomo; The impact of Greek Ohi Day to American public opinion; Hilary Roberts on German and British Photography in Greece 1940-1945
N.M. (Intro image: Greek gun crew at work in the campaign in Albania, 1940-41. Office of War Information Photograph, 91200-ZC [LOC-USZ62-94574, Lot 11618-9, National Museum of the U.S. Navy])
TAGS: HISTORY
